CONTENTS
Measurements
Significance of Measurement system
Fundamental methods of Measurement
The generalized measurement system
Definitions & basic concepts
Errors in Measurements
Sources of errors
Accuracy Precision
Resolution
Linearity
Hysteresis
Impedance loading
Introduction to Transducers
Classification of transducers
Capacitive
Inductive
Resistive
Electromagnetic
Piezoelectric
Photoconductive
Photovoltaic
Unit-3 Instrumentation and control in mechanical engineering and other basic subject which contain instruments and their working under the syllabus of RGPV UNIVERSITY Bhopal.
Instrumentation Variable Like Pressure Temperature Flow & Level. Also Control Valve, Transmitters, Measuring And Sensing Instruments. Transducers and Control Loops. 4 to 20 mA wiring Types. Fire Alarm Devices. Manifolds
Electrical and Instrumentation (E&I) Engineering for Oil and Gas FacilitiesLiving Online
Ā
There is a growing shortage, and hence opportunity, for Electrical and Instrumentation (E&I) technicians, technologists and engineers in the oil and gas industry. This is due to an increasing need for higher technology methods of obtaining and processing oil and gas as it is a finite declining resource. The price of oil is heading upwards steadily, thus making personnel and their associated oil and gas expertise in these industries even more valuable. The technical challenges of extracting oil and gas are becoming ever more demanding, with increasing emphasis on more marginal fields and previously inaccessible zones such as deep oceans, Polar regions, Falkland Islands and Greenland. The aim program is to provide you with core E&I engineering skills to enhance your career, and to benefit your firm.
This course provides a whole spectrum of activities ranging from basic electrical and instrumentation engineering to advanced practice including hazardous areas, data communications along with a vast array of E&I equipment utilised in an oil and gas environment as well as practical treatment of electrical power systems and instrumentation within the oil, gas, petrochemical and offshore industries. Whilst there is some theory this is used in a practical context giving you the necessary tools to ensure that the E&I hardware is delivering the results intended. No matter whether you are a new electrical, instrumentation or control technician/technologist/graduate engineer or indeed, even a practising facilities engineer, you will find this course beneficial in improving your understanding, skills and knowledge.
MORE INFORMATION: http://www.idc-online.com/content/electrical-and-instrumentation-ei-engineering-oil-and-gas-facilities-5
Introduction to operation and Control of Thermal Power PlantSWAPNILTRIVEDI6
Ā
The slides gives a brief introduction of operation and control of a Thermal power plant.
Posting from my personal Experience during my internship at Rajasthan Spinning and Weaving Mils (RSWM) Ltd. It gives a brief introduction of the installed 46 MW Generation system used by company along with the overall process.
The aim is to help undergraduate students to learn about the overall introduction to Power Plant engineering.
In this presentation how flow rate, pressure, temperature and level in tank measure in refinery or any industry with different instrument are discussed.
Information about
Differential Pressure
Pressure Transmitter
Definition
Industrial dp transmitter
Construction
Internal arrangement
Uses
Advantage and disadvantage
covered all the concepts
CONTENTS
Measurements
Significance of Measurement system
Fundamental methods of Measurement
The generalized measurement system
Definitions & basic concepts
Errors in Measurements
Sources of errors
Accuracy Precision
Resolution
Linearity
Hysteresis
Impedance loading
Introduction to Transducers
Classification of transducers
Capacitive
Inductive
Resistive
Electromagnetic
Piezoelectric
Photoconductive
Photovoltaic
Unit-3 Instrumentation and control in mechanical engineering and other basic subject which contain instruments and their working under the syllabus of RGPV UNIVERSITY Bhopal.
Instrumentation Variable Like Pressure Temperature Flow & Level. Also Control Valve, Transmitters, Measuring And Sensing Instruments. Transducers and Control Loops. 4 to 20 mA wiring Types. Fire Alarm Devices. Manifolds
Electrical and Instrumentation (E&I) Engineering for Oil and Gas FacilitiesLiving Online
Ā
There is a growing shortage, and hence opportunity, for Electrical and Instrumentation (E&I) technicians, technologists and engineers in the oil and gas industry. This is due to an increasing need for higher technology methods of obtaining and processing oil and gas as it is a finite declining resource. The price of oil is heading upwards steadily, thus making personnel and their associated oil and gas expertise in these industries even more valuable. The technical challenges of extracting oil and gas are becoming ever more demanding, with increasing emphasis on more marginal fields and previously inaccessible zones such as deep oceans, Polar regions, Falkland Islands and Greenland. The aim program is to provide you with core E&I engineering skills to enhance your career, and to benefit your firm.
This course provides a whole spectrum of activities ranging from basic electrical and instrumentation engineering to advanced practice including hazardous areas, data communications along with a vast array of E&I equipment utilised in an oil and gas environment as well as practical treatment of electrical power systems and instrumentation within the oil, gas, petrochemical and offshore industries. Whilst there is some theory this is used in a practical context giving you the necessary tools to ensure that the E&I hardware is delivering the results intended. No matter whether you are a new electrical, instrumentation or control technician/technologist/graduate engineer or indeed, even a practising facilities engineer, you will find this course beneficial in improving your understanding, skills and knowledge.
MORE INFORMATION: http://www.idc-online.com/content/electrical-and-instrumentation-ei-engineering-oil-and-gas-facilities-5
Introduction to operation and Control of Thermal Power PlantSWAPNILTRIVEDI6
Ā
The slides gives a brief introduction of operation and control of a Thermal power plant.
Posting from my personal Experience during my internship at Rajasthan Spinning and Weaving Mils (RSWM) Ltd. It gives a brief introduction of the installed 46 MW Generation system used by company along with the overall process.
The aim is to help undergraduate students to learn about the overall introduction to Power Plant engineering.
In this presentation how flow rate, pressure, temperature and level in tank measure in refinery or any industry with different instrument are discussed.
Information about
Differential Pressure
Pressure Transmitter
Definition
Industrial dp transmitter
Construction
Internal arrangement
Uses
Advantage and disadvantage
covered all the concepts
Fluid Dynamics describes the physics of fluids at level of Undergraduate in science (physics, math, engineering). For comments or improvements please contact solo.hermelin@gmail.com. Thanks.
For more presentations on different subjects visit my website at http://www.solohermelin.com.
SAIF ALDIN ALI MADIN
Ų³ŁŁ Ų§ŁŲÆŁŁ Ų¹ŁŁ Ł Ų§Ų¶Ł
S96aif@gmail.com
After insulating limited distance between jet hole and main
channel and find:
1. The static pressure distribution the along channel.
2. The velocity distribution on the section different dimensions.
3. The secondary flow rate discharge
4. The friction force F
PPT on Bernoulli's Theorem ,with Application,Derivation, Bernoulli's Equation,Definition,About The Scientist ,Solved Example,Video Lecture,Solved Problem(Video),Dimensions.
If you liked it don't forget to follow me-
Instagram-yadavgaurav251
Facebook-www.facebook.com/yadavgaurav251
Lab 2 Fluid Flow Rate.pdf
MEE 491 Lab #2: Fluid Flow Rate
The goal of the fluid flow lab is to become familiar with measuring fluid pressure and flow rate
with orifice obstruction meters.
Reading: Beckwith pgs 489-576
Moran, Shapiro, Munson, and Dewitt (i.e. your thermofluids book): Ch 11, 12 & 14
Introduction
This experiment introduces you to orifice obstruction meters, which are a common tool used
to measure fluid flow rate. The experimental system includes two types of orifice obstruction
meters: flow nozzles and orifice plates. The differential pressure across the orifice obstruction
meter is needed to calculate flow rate, and so pressure measuring devices are included to
measure a) the differential pressure across the flow nozzle and b) the differential pressure across
the orifice plate. Figure 1 illustrates the experimental system and its relevant components.
Air from the room enters the plenum chamber through the nozzle. The air then flows through
flexible black tubing and into a transparent circular duct that is instrumented with the orifice
plate. Lastly the air flow enters the vacuum pump via more flexible black tubing and is returned
to the room via the vacuum pumps outlet. Variable air flow through the system can be achieved
by a rheostat knob that controls the vacuum pump. We will assume that any leaks in the system
are negligible. Since the obstruction meters are connected in series, both obstruction meters
measure the same mass flow rate (i.e. conservation of mass).
In the case of the flow nozzles, two different sizes are provided. Both nozzles are
standardized ASME long-radius flow nozzles with diameters of 1.265 cm and 2.530 cm for the
small and medium nozzles, respectively. The orifice plate has a diameter of 0.795 in and is
located in a pipe with a diameter of 2 in.
Ā
Figure 1. Photograph of the experimental system and relevant components for
part A of this lab
Ā
The discharge coefficient, CD, is a very important performance parameter for an orifice
obstruction meter. The discharge coefficient tells you the ratio of the actual orifice flow rate,
Qactual, to the ideal orifice flow rate, Qideal:
š¶! =
!!"#$!%
!!"#$%
[1]
The ideal flow rate corresponds to the flow rate as derived from Bernoulliās equation. Two of
the assumptions that Bernoulliās equation makes are isentropic and incompressible flow. While
these are good approximations in many engineering situations, no real system is every truly
isentropic and incompressible. Hence the discharge coefficient is always less than 1. In this lab
you will determine the discharge coefficient for the nozzles as well as the orifice plate.
Procedure
ā¢ With the small nozzle measure at five different steady-state (i.e. make sure pressures are
not changing with time) flow rates measure:
o The differential pressure across the flow nozzle.
o The differential pressure across the orifice plate wi ..
Rev. August 2014 ME495 - Pipe Flow Characteristicsā¦ Page .docxjoyjonna282
Ā
Rev. August 2014 ME495 - Pipe Flow Characteristicsā¦ Page 2
2
ME495āThermo Fluids Laboratory
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
PIPE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
AND PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
CALIBRATION
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
PREPARED BY: GROUP LEADERāS NAME
LAB PARTNERS: NAME
NAME
NAME
TIME/DATE OF EXPERIMENT: TIME , DATE
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
OBJECTIVEā The objectives of this experiment are
to: a) observe the characteristics of flow in a pipe,
b) evaluate the flow rate in a pipe using velocity
and pressure difference measurements, and c)
perform the calibration of a pressure transducer.
Upon completing this experiment you should have
learned (i) how to measure the flow rate and average
velocity in a pipe using a Pitot tube and/or a resistance
flow meter, and (ii) how to classify the general
characteristics of a pipe flow.
Nomenclature
a = speed of sound, m/s
A = area, m
2
C = discharge coefficient, dimensionless
d = pipe diameter, m
d0 = orifice diameter, m
E = velocity approach factor, dimensionless
f = Darcy friction factor, dimensionless
K0 = flow coefficient, dimensionless
k = ratio of specific heats (cp/cv), dimensionless
L = length of pipe, m
M = Mach number, dimensionless
p = pressure, Pa
p0 = stagnation pressure, Pa
p1, p2 = pressure at two axial locations along a
pipe, Pa
Q = volumetric flow rate, m
3
/s
R = specific gas constant, JĀ·kg/K
Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless
T = temperature, K
V = local velocity, m/s
V = average velocity, m/s
Y = adiabatic expansion factor, dimensionless
ļ¢ = ratio of orifice diameter to pipe diameter,
dimensionless
ļp = pressure drop across an orifice meter, Pa
ļ = dynamic viscosity, PaĀ·s
ļ² = air density, kg/m3
INTRODUCTIONā The flow of a fluid (liquid or
gas) through pipes or ducts is a common part of many
engineering systems. Household applications include
the flow of water in copper pipes, the flow of natural
gas in steel pipes, and the flow of heated air through
metal ducts of rectangular cross-section in a forced-air
furnace system. Industrial applications range from the
flow of liquid plastics in a manufacturing plant, to the
flow of yogurt in a food-processing plant. Because the
purpose of a piping system is to transport a desired
quantity of fluid, it is important to understand the
various methods of measuring the flow rate.
In order to work with a fluid system, and certainly to
design a fluid system that will deliver a prescribed
flow, it is necessary to understand certain fundamental
aspects of the fluid flow. For this, one should be able
to answer questions like: Are compressibility effects
important? Is the flow laminar or turbulent? Is the
viscosity of the fluid important or not? Is the flow
steady or varying with time? What are the primary
forces of importance? For internal ...
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
Ā
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
Ā
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
Ā
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
2. Eulerās equation of motion..................................................................................................... 1
Derivation.............................................................................................................................................................1
Bernoulli's Equation............................................................................................................... 4
Pressure/velocity variation ............................................................................................................4
Pilot Tube.............................................................................................................................. 5
Venturi meter........................................................................................................................ 8
Steady flow momentum equation.......................................................................................... 9
Newton's 2nd Law can be written .......................................................................................................................9
Forces exerted on a pipe bend ............................................................................................. 14
Resulting force due to Mass flow and Flow Velocity .........................................................................................14
Example - Resulting force on a bend due to mass flow and flow velocity.........................................................15
Resulting force due to Static Pressure ...............................................................................................................16
Example - Resulting force on a bend due to pressure .......................................................................................17
Eulerās equation of motion
This section is not a mandatory requirement. One can skip this section (if he/she does not like to
spend time on Euler's equation) and go directly to Steady Flow Energy Equation.
Using the Newton's second law of motion the relationship between the velocity and pressure
field for a flow of an in viscid fluid can be derived. The resulting equation, in its differential
form, is known as Eulerās Equation. The equation is first derived by the scientist Euler.
Derivation
let us consider an elementary parallelepiped of fluid element as a control mass system in a frame
of rectangular Cartesian coordinate axes as shown in Fig. 12.3. The external forces acting on a
fluid element are the body forces and the surface forces.
3. Fig 12.2 A Fluid Element appropriate to a Cartesian Coordinate System
used for the derivation of Euler's Equation
Let Xx, Xy, Xz be the components of body forces acting per unit mass of the fluid element along
the coordinate axes x, y and z respectively. The body forces arise due to external force fields like
gravity, electromagnetic field, etc., and therefore, the detailed description of Xx, Xy and Xz are
provided by the laws of physics describing the force fields. The surface forces for an in viscid
fluid will be the pressure forces acting on different surfaces as shown in Fig. 12.3. Therefore, the
net forces acting on the fluid element along x, y and z directions can be written as
Since each component of the force can be expressed as the rate of change of momentum in the
respective directions, we have
4. (12.5a)
(12.5b)
(12.5c)
s the mass of a control mass system does not change with time, is constant with time
and can be taken common. Therefore we can write Eqs (12.5a to 12.5c) as
(12.6a)
(12.6b)
(12.6c)
Expanding the material accelerations in Eqs (12.6a) to (12.6c) in terms of their respective
temporal and convective components, we get
(12.7a)
(12.7b)
(12.7c)
The Eqs (12.7a, 12.7b, 12.7c) are valid for both incompressible and compressible flow. By
putting u = v = w = 0, as a special case, one can obtain the equation of hydrostatics .
Equations (12.7a), (12.7b), (12.7c) can be put into a single vector form as
(12.7d)
(12.7e)
where the velocity vector and the body force vector per unit volume are defined as
5. Bernoulli's Equation
The Bernoulli equation states that,
Where
ā¢ points 1 and 2 lie on a streamline,
ā¢ the fluid has constant density,
ā¢ the flow is steady, and
ā¢ there is no friction.
Although these restrictions sound severe, the Bernoulli equation is very useful, partly because it
is very simple to use and partly because it can give great insight into the balance between
pressure, velocity and elevation
How useful is Bernoulli's equation? How restrictive are the assumptions governing its use? Here
we give some examples.
Pressure/velocity variation
Consider the steady, flow of a constant density fluid in a converging duct, without losses due to
friction (figure 14). The flow therefore satisfies all the restrictions governing the use of
Bernoulli's equation. Upstream and downstream of the contraction we make the one-dimensional
assumption that the velocity is constant over the inlet and outlet areas and parallel.
Figure 14. One-dimensional duct showing
control volume.
When streamlines are parallel the pressure is constant across them, except for hydrostatic head
differences (if the pressure was higher in the middle of the duct, for example, we would expect
6. the streamlines to diverge, and vice versa). If we ignore gravity, then the pressures over the inlet
and outlet areas are constant. Along a streamline on the centerline, the Bernoulli equation and the
one-dimensional continuity equation give, respectively,
These two observations provide an intuitive guide for analyzing fluid flows, even when the flow
is not one-dimensional. For example, when fluid passes over a solid body, the streamlines get
closer together, the flow velocity increases, and the pressure decreases. Airfoils are designed so
that the flow over the top surface is faster than over the bottom surface, and therefore the average
pressure over the top surface is less than the average pressure over the bottom surface, and a
resultant force due to this pressure difference is produced. This is the source of lift on an airfoil.
Lift is defined as the force acting on an airfoil due to its motion, in a direction normal to the
direction of motion. Likewise, drag on an airfoil is defined as the force acting on an airfoil due to
its motion, along the direction of motion.
An easy demonstration of the lift produced by an airstream requires a piece of notebook paper
and two books of about equal thickness. Place the books four to five inches apart, and cover the
gap with the paper. When you blow through the passage made by the books and the paper, what
do you see? Why?
Pilot Tube
A pilot tube is a pressure measurement instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity. The pilot
tube was invented by the French engineer Henri Pilot in the early 18th century[1]
and was
modified to its modern form in the mid-19th century by French scientist Henry Darcy.[2]
It
is widely used to determine the airspeed of an aircraft, water speed of a boat, and to measure
liquid, air and gas velocities in industrial applications. The pitot tube is used to measure the local
velocity at a given point in the flow stream and not the average velocity in the pipe or conduit.[3]
Theory of operation
7. The basic pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly into the fluid flow. As this
tube contains fluid, a pressure can be measured; the moving fluid is brought to rest (stagnates) as
there is no outlet to allow flow to continue. This pressure is the stagnation pressure of the fluid,
also known as the total pressure or (particularly in aviation) the pitot pressure.
The measured stagnation pressure cannot itself be used to determine the fluid velocity (airspeed
in aviation). However, Bernoulli's equation states:
Stagnation pressure = static pressure + dynamic pressure
Which can also be written
Solving that for velocity we get:
NOTE: The above equation applies ONLY to fluids that can be treated as incompressible.
Liquids are treated as incompressible under almost all conditions. Gases under certain conditions
can be approximated as incompressible. See Compressibility.
Where:
ā¢ is fluid velocity;
ā¢ is stagnation or total pressure;
ā¢ is static pressure;
ā¢ and is fluid density.
The value for the pressure drop ā or due to , the reading on the manometer:
Where:
ā¢ is the density of the fluid in the manometer
ā¢ is the manometer reading
The dynamic pressure, then, is the difference between the stagnation pressure and the static
pressure. The static pressure is generally measured using the static ports on the side of the
fuselage. The dynamic pressure is then determined using a diaphragm inside an enclosed
container. If the air on one side of the diaphragm is at the static pressure, and the other at the
stagnation pressure, then the deflection of the diaphragm is proportional to the dynamic pressure,
which can then be used to determine the indicated airspeed of the aircraft. The
8. diaphragm arrangement is typically contained within the airspeed indicator, which converts the
dynamic pressure to an airspeed reading by means of mechanical levers.
Instead of separate piltot and static ports, a pilot-static tube (also called a Prandtl tube) may be
employed, which has a second tube coaxial with the pilot tube with holes on the sides, outside
the direct airflow, to measure the static pressure.
Industry applications
Pitot tube from an F/A-18
In industry, the velocities being measured are often those flowing in ducts and tubing where
measurements by an anemometer would be difficult to obtain. In these kinds of measurements,
the most practical instrument to use is the pitot tube. The pitot tube can be inserted through a
small hole in the duct with the pitot connected to a U-tube water gauge or some other
differential pressure gauge for determining the velocity inside the ducted wind tunnel. One use of
this technique is to determine the volume of air that is being delivered to a conditioned space.
The fluid flow rate in a duct can then be estimated from:
Volume flow rate (cubic feet per minute) = duct area (square feet) Ć velocity (feet per minute)
Volume flow rate (cubic meters per second)
= duct area (square meters) Ć velocity (meters per second)
In aviation, airspeed is typically measured in knots.
9. Venturi meter
ā¢ In the upstream cone of the Venturi meter, velocity is increased, pressure is decreased
ā¢ Pressure drop in the upstream cone is utilized to measure the rate of flow through the
instrument
ā¢ Velocity is then decreased and pressure is largely recovered in the down stream cone
ā¢ Mostly used for liquids, water
Disadvantages of Venturi meter:
ā¢ Highly expensive
ā¢Occupies considerable space (L/D ratio of appr. 50)
ā¢Cannot be altered for measuring pressure beyond a maximum velocity.
Volumetric flow rate through a Venturi meter:
10. where Cv - Venturi coefficient
Sb - Cross sectional area of down stream
- Ratio of cs areas of upstream to that of down stream.
Pa-Pb - Pressure gradient across the Venturi meter
- Density of fluid
Steady flow momentum equation
We have all seen moving fluids exerting forces. The lift force on an aircraft is exerted by the
air moving over the wing. A jet of water from a hose exerts a force on whatever it hits. In
fluid mechanics the analysis of motion is performed in the same way as in solid mechanics -
by use of Newton's laws of motion. Account is also taken for the special properties of fluids
when in motion.
The momentum equation is a statement of Newton's Second Law and relates the sum of
the forces acting on an element of fluid to its acceleration or rate of change of momentum.
You will probably recognise the equation F = ma which is used in the analysis of solid
mechanics to relate applied force to acceleration. In fluid mechanics it is not clear what mass
of moving fluid we should use so we use a different form of the equation.
Newton's 2nd Law can be written
The Rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force acting on the body,
and takes place in the direction of the force.
To determine the rate of change of momentum for a fluid we will consider a stream tube as
we did for the Bernoulli equation,
We start by assuming that we have steady flow which is non-uniform flowing in a stream
tube.
11. A stream tube in three and two-dimensions
In time a volume of the fluid moves from the inlet a distance , so the volume entering
the stream tube in the time is
this has mass,
and momentum
Similarly, at the exit, we can obtain an expression for the momentum leaving the steamtube:
We can now calculate the force exerted by the fluid using Newton's 2nd
Law. The force is
equal to the rate of change of momentum. So
We know from continuity that , and if we have a fluid of constant density,
12. i.e. , then we can write
For an alternative derivation of the same expression, as we know from conservation of mass
in a stream tube that
we can write
The rate at which momentum leaves face 1 is
The rate at which momentum enters face 2 is
Thus the rate at which momentum changes across the stream tube is
i.e.
This force is acting in the direction of the flow of the fluid.
This analysis assumed that the inlet and outlet velocities were in the same direction - i.e. a
one dimensional system. What happens when this is not the case?
Consider the two dimensional system in the figure below:
13. Two dimensional flow in a stream tube
At the inlet the velocity vector, , makes an angle, , with the x-axis, while at the
outlet make an angle . In this case we consider the forces by resolving in the directions
of the co-ordinate axes.
The force in the x-direction
And the force in the y-direction
We then find the resultant force by combining these vectorially:
14. And the angle which this force acts at is given by
For a three-dimensional (x, y, z) system we then have an extra force to calculate and resolve
in the z-direction. This is considered in exactly the same way.
In summary we can say:
Remember that we are working with vectors so F is in the direction of the
velocity. This force is made up of three components:
Force exerted on the fluid by any solid body touching the control
volume
Force exerted on the fluid body (e.g. gravity)
Force exerted on the fluid by fluid pressure outside the control volume
15. So we say that the total force, FT, is given by the sum of these forces:
The force exerted by the fluid on the solid body touching the control volume
is opposite to . So the reaction force, R, is given by
Forces exerted on a pipe bend
Resulting force due to Mass flow and Flow Velocity
The resulting force in x-direction due to mass flow and flow velocity can be expressed as:
Rx = m Ā· v Ā· (1 - cosĪ²) (1)
= Ļ Ā· A Ā· v2
Ā· (1 - cosĪ²) (1b)
= Ļ Ā· Ļ Ā· (d / 2)2
Ā· v2
Ā· (1 - cosĪ²) (1c)
where
Rx = resulting force in x-direction (N)
m = mass flow (kg/s)
v = flow velocity (m/s)
16. Ī² = turning bend angle (degrees)
Ļ = fluid density (kg/m3
)
d = internal pipe or bend diameter (m)
Ļ = 3.14...
The resulting force in y-direction due to mass flow and flow velocity can be expressed as:
Ry = m Ā· v Ā· sinĪ² (2)
= Ļ Ā· A Ā· v2
Ā· sinĪ² (2b)
= Ļ Ā· Ļ Ā· (d / 2)2
Ā· v2
Ā· sinĪ² (2c)
Ry = resulting force in y direction (N)
The resulting force on the bend due to force in x- and y-direction can be expressed as:
R = (Rx
2
+ Ry
2
)1/2
(3)
where
R = resulting force on the bend (N)
Example - Resulting force on a bend due to mass flow and flow velocity
The resulting force on a 45o
bend with
ā¢ diameter 114 mm = 0.114 m
ā¢ water with density 1000 kg/m3
ā¢ flow velocity 20 m/s
can be calculated by as
Resulting force in x-direction:
Rx = 1000 (kg/m3
) Ā· Ļ Ā· (0.114 (m) / 2)2
Ā· 20 (m/s)2
Ā· (1 - cos45)
= 1196 (N)
Resulting force in y-direction:
17. Ry = 1000 (kg/m3
) Ā· Ļ Ā· (0.114 (m) / 2)2
Ā· 20 (m/s)2
Ā· sin45
= 2887 (N)
Resulting force on the bend
R = (1196 (N)2
+ 2887 (N)2
)1/2
= 3125 (N)
Note - if Ī² is 90o
the resulting forces in x- and y-directions are the same.
Resulting force due to Static Pressure
The pressure and the end surfaces of the bend creates resulting forces in x- and y-directions.
The resulting force in x-direction can be expressed as
Rpx = p Ā· A Ā· (1- cos Ī²) (4)
= p Ā· Ļ Ā· (d / 2)2
(Ā·1- cos Ī²) (4b)
where
Rpx = resulting force due to pressure in x-direction (N)
p = gauge pressure inside pipe (Pa, N/m2
)
The resulting force in y-direction can be expressed as
Rpy = p Ā· Ļ Ā· (d / 2)2
Ā· sinĪ² (5)
where
Rpy = resulting force due to pressure in y-direction (N)
The resulting force on the bend due to force in x- and y-direction can be expressed as:
Rp = (Rpx
2
+ Rpy
2
)1/2
(6)
where
Rp = resulting force on the bend due to static pressure (N)
18. Example - Resulting force on a bend due to pressure
The resulting force on a 45o
bend with
ā¢ diameter 114 mm = 0.114 m
ā¢ pressure 100 kPa
can be calculated by as
Resulting force in x-direction:
Rx = 100 (kPa) Ā· Ļ Ā· (0.114 (m) / 2)2
Ā· (1 - cos45)
= 299 (N)
Resulting force in y-direction:
Ry = 100 (kPa) Ā· Ļ Ā· (0.114 (m) / 2)2
Ā· sin45
= 722 (N)
Resulting force on the bend
R = (299 (N)2
+ 722 (N)2
)1/2
= 781 (N)