The document discusses personality types and models, including the Big Five traits, Cattell's 16 factors, and Myers-Briggs types. It covers how personality develops, is influenced by both nature and nurture, and how understanding personality can help with self-awareness, managing relationships, and diversity in teams. The purpose is to gain a deeper understanding of human nature and behavior.

2. • To develop an understanding about human
nature and its influence on behaviour
• Becoming more self-aware and have a
deeper understanding about others
Today’s Objectives
• To develop an appreciation for diversity

3. • What is personality?
• What makes us what we are?
• What are the key elements of personality?
• Are there generic types or classes?
We will cover:
• Are there generic types or classes?
• Is this personality “good” or “bad”?
• Is diversity a “curse” or a blessing?
• Application of what we have learnt

6. • Self-awareness
• People are the most important
organizational resource
• Improving predictability and self-
confidence
• Building relationships• Building relationships
• Effective utilization of human resources
• Avoiding or managing conflicts
• Improving the quality of life and work
environment

7. • Have you ever faced a person whom you
failed to understand?
• Have you ever been misunderstood (as a
person)?
Reflection
• Have you ever been frustrated by people
who looked, behaved, thought or felt very
different than you?
• Have you ever looked down on someone
who behaved, thought or felt differently?

9. • “Every man is in certain respects like all
other men, like some other men, like no
other man”
Kluckhohn & Murray
Personality

10. • Personality describes the character of
emotion, thought, and behavior patterns
unique to a person
• It is a particular pattern of behaviour and
thinking prevailing across time and
Personality
thinking prevailing across time and
situations that differentiates one person
from another
• Personality is the sum total of ways in
which an individual react and interacts
with others

11. • Personality is that which permits a
prediction of what a person will do in a
given situation
• It explains how each individual is unique
Personality
• Personality is one of the key determinants
of human behaviour – but there are also
other factors of behaviour e.g. situation,
attitude, cognition, motivation, belief etc.

13. • Nature vs. Nurture
Heredity and biology - genes, nervous
system, endocrine system and other systems
Environment and life experiences
The Development of Personality
Environment and life experiences
• Identical twins share the same template
but have different “states”
• Twins raised in different families have
often demonstrated similar tastes,
choosing the same profession and even
using the same brands of products

14. • Some traits may be more strongly linked
to heredity than others
• The initial few years are critical in the
formation of personality
The Development of Personality
• Plaster vs. Plasticity hypothesis
Set like plaster
Changes throughout adulthood

15. • Trait Theories – personality is a set of mental
structures/systems, different for each individual,
resulting in characteristic responses to situations
• Humanist Theories – difficult to predict
behaviour – lives are not scripted – personalities
Views on Personality
behaviour – lives are not scripted – personalities
are defined by their own different perceptions and
experiences
• Behavioural Theories – Personality is the
constantly changing set of learned behaviour,
influenced by reinforcements

16. • Human behaviour is influenced by:
Personality traits
The situation
The interaction between personality
Interactionism
The interaction between personality
and situation
• How one perceives or defines a situation is
a critical factor of behaviour

17. • Doctors report that the child would never
be able to play any physically exerting
sport… the child grows to be the fittest
athlete in the world
• How did the parents define the situation?
CASE
• How did the parents define the situation?
• How did the child define the situation?
• How did it influence their behaviour?

18. • Locus of Control (internal/external)
The degree to which people believe they are in
control of their own fate
• Self-Esteem - Feelings of self-worth stemming
from the individual's positive or negative beliefs
Other Attributes
from the individual's positive or negative beliefs
about being valuable and capable
• Self-awareness - being aware of oneself,
including one's traits, feelings, behaviours and
limitations
• Risk Taking - a person’s willingness to take
chances or risks

20. • Before we examine various types of
personalities we should remember:
There is no “right”, “wrong”, “good” or “bad”
type
Each type has “strengths” and “weaknesses”
Is this Personality Good or Bad?
Each type has “strengths” and “weaknesses”
A personality may however be more “suitable”
for a given role or situation
Personality traits may shift over time
Behaviour/performance is not dependent on
personality alone

21. • The Big Five
• Cattell’s 16 Primary Factors
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Personality Models

22. The Big Five
Neuroticism
Anxiety
Angry hostility
Depression
Self-consciousness
Impulsiveness
Vulnerability
Extraversion
Warmth & Sociability
Assertiveness
Activity
Positive emotions
Talkativeness
Boldness
Spontaneity
Openness
Fantasy
Aesthetics
Feelings
Actions
Ideas
Values
Spontaneity
Adventure & Enthusiasm
Agreeableness
Trust
Straightforwardness
Altruism
Compliance
Modesty
Tender-mindedness
Conscientiousness
Competence
Order
Dutifulness
Achievement striving
Self-discipline
Deliberation (reflection)

23. Cattells’ 16 Primary Factors
Factor Low High
Warmth
Reserved, impersonal,
cool, detached, formal
Warm, outgoing, kindly,
easygoing, participating,
likes people
Reasoning
Concrete-thinking, less
intelligent
Abstract-thinking, more
intelligent, bright, fast
learnerlearner
Emotional
Stability
Reactive, emotionally less
stable, easily upset
Emotionally stable,
adaptive, mature, faces
reality, calm
Dominance
Respectful, humble,
cooperative, avoids
conflict, obedient
Dominant, assertive,
aggressive, competitive,
stubborn, bossy
Liveliness
Serious, restrained,
prudent, thoughtful,
silent
Lively, spontaneous,
enthusiastic, cheerful,
expressive, impulsive

24. Cattells’ 16 Primary Factors
Factor Low High
Rule-
Consciousness
Expedient,
nonconforming,
disregards rules
Rule-conscious, dutiful,
conscientious, moralistic,
rule-bound
Social Boldness
Shy, threat-sensitive,
timid, hesitant,
intimidated
Socially bold,
venturesome, thick-
skinned, uninhibitedintimidated skinned, uninhibited
Sensitivity
Utilitarian, objective,
unsentimental, tough-
minded, rough
Sensitive, aesthetic,
sentimental, tender-
minded, intuitive, refined
Vigilance
Trusting, accepting,
unconditional, easy
Vigilant, suspicious,
skeptical, distrustful,
oppositional
Abstractedness
Grounded, practical,
solution-oriented,
steady, conventional
Abstracted, imaginative,
absent-minded, absorbed
in ideas, impractical,

25. Cattells’ 16 Primary Factors
Factor Low High
Privateness
Straightforward,
genuine, open, naive
Private, tactful, non-
disclosing, shrewd, worldly,
diplomatic
Apprehension
unworried, secure,
complacent, free of
guilt, confident
Apprehensive, self-
doubting, worried, guilt-
prone, insecure, self-
guilt, confident
prone, insecure, self-
blaming
Openness to
Change
Traditional, attached to
familiar, conservative
Open to change,
experimenting, liberal,
analytical, flexible
Self-Reliance
Group-oriented,
affiliative, follower,
dependent
Self-reliant, solitary,
individualistic, self-sufficient

26. Cattells’ 16 Primary Factors
Factor Low High
Perfectionism
Tolerates disorder,
flexible, careless,
impulsive
Perfectionist, organized,
compulsive, self-disciplined
Tension
Relaxed, easy going,
calm, lazy, patient, low
drive
Tense, high energy,
impatient, frustrated, high
drive, time-drivendrive drive, time-driven

27. • 4 Scales
Extraversion - Introversion
Sensing – Intuition
Thinking – Feeling
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Thinking – Feeling
Judging - Perceiving
• 16 Types

28. MBTI Scales
Extraversion
Outer world
People/Things
Active
Breadth of Interest
Live, then understand
Interaction
Introversion
Inner World
Thoughts/Concepts
Reflective
Depth of Interest
Understand, then live
ConcentrationInteraction
Outgoing
Concentration
Inwardly directed
Sensing
Facts
Data
Details
Reality based
Actuality
Here and now
Utility/Purpose
Intuition
Meanings
Associations
Possibilities
Hunches/Speculations
Theoretical
Future
Fantasy

29. MBTI Scales
Thinking
Analysis
Objective
Logic
Impersonal
Critique
Reason
Feeling
Sympathy
Subjective
Humane
Personal
Appreciate
ValuesReason
Criteria
Values
Circumstances
Judging
Organized
Settled
Planned
Decisive
Control own life
Set goals
Systematic
Perceiving
Pending
Flexible
Spontaneous
Tentative
Let life happen
Undaunted by surprise
Open to change

30. MBTI – 16 Personality Types
ISTJ
Serious and quiet, interested in security
and peaceful living. Extremely thorough,
responsible, and dependable. Well-
developed powers of concentration.
Usually interested in supporting and
promoting traditions and establishments.
Well-organized and hard working, they
work steadily towards identified goals.
They can usually accomplish any task
ISTP
Quiet and reserved, interested in how and
why things work. Excellent skills with
mechanical things. Risk-takers who they live
for the moment. Usually interested in and
talented at extreme sports. Uncomplicated in
their desires. Loyal to their peers and to their
internal value systems, but not overly
concerned with respecting laws and rules if
they get in the way of getting somethingThey can usually accomplish any task
once they have set their mind to it.
they get in the way of getting something
done. Detached and analytical, they excel at
finding solutions to practical problems.
ISFJ
Quiet, kind, and conscientious. Can be
depended on to follow through. Usually
puts the needs of others above their own
needs. Stable and practical, they value
security and traditions. Well-developed
sense of space and function. Rich inner
world of observations about people.
Extremely perceptive of other's feelings.
Interested in serving others.
ISFP
Quiet, serious, sensitive and kind. Do not like
conflict, and not likely to do things which may
generate conflict. Loyal and faithful.
Extremely well-developed senses, and
aesthetic appreciation for beauty. Not
interested in leading or controlling others.
Flexible and open-minded. Likely to be
original and creative. Enjoy the present
moment.

31. MBTI – 16 Personality Types
INFJ
Quietly forceful, original, and sensitive.
Tend to stick to things until they are
done. Extremely intuitive about people,
and concerned for their feelings. Well-
developed value systems which they
strictly adhere to. Well-respected for their
perserverence in doing the right thing.
Likely to be individualistic, rather than
leading or following.
INFP
Quiet, reflective, and idealistic. Interested in
serving humanity. Well-developed value
system, which they strive to live in
accordance with. Extremely loyal. Adaptable
and laid-back unless a strongly-held value is
threatened. Usually talented writers. Mentally
quick, and able to see possibilities. Interested
in understanding and helping people.
leading or following.
INTJ
Independent, original, analytical, and
determined. Have an exceptional ability
to turn theories into solid plans of action.
Highly value knowledge, competence,
and structure. Driven to derive meaning
from their visions. Long-range thinkers.
Have very high standards for their
performance, and the performance of
others. Natural leaders, but will follow if
they trust existing leaders.
INTP
Logical, original, creative thinkers. Can
become very excited about theories and
ideas. Exceptionally capable and driven to
turn theories into clear understandings.
Highly value knowledge, competence and
logic. Quiet and reserved, hard to get to know
well. Individualistic, having no interest in
leading or following others.

32. MBTI – 16 Personality Types
ESTP
Friendly, adaptable, action-oriented.
"Doers" who are focused on immediate
results. Living in the here-and-now,
they're risk-takers who live fast-paced
lifestyles. Impatient with long
explanations. Extremely loyal to their
peers, but not usually respectful of laws
and rules if they get in the way of getting
things done. Great people skills.
ESTJ
Practical, traditional, and organized. Likely to
be athletic. Not interested in theory or
abstraction unless they see the practical
application. Have clear visions of the way
things should be. Loyal and hard-working.
Like to be in charge. Exceptionally capable in
organizing and running activities. "Good
citizens" who value security and peaceful
living.things done. Great people skills. living.
ESFP
People-oriented and fun-loving, they
make things more fun for others by their
enjoyment. Living for the moment, they
love new experiences. They dislike theory
and impersonal analysis. Interested in
serving others. Likely to be the center of
attention in social situations. Well-
developed common sense and practical
ability.
ESFJ
Warm-hearted, popular, and conscientious.
Tend to put the needs of others over their
own needs. Feel strong sense of responsibility
and duty. Value traditions and security.
Interested in serving others. Need positive
reinforcement to feel good about themselves.
Well-developed sense of space and function.

33. MBTI – 16 Personality Types
ENFP
Enthusiastic, idealistic, and creative. Able
to do almost anything that interests
them. Great people skills. Need to live life
in accordance with their inner values.
Excited by new ideas, but bored with
details. Open-minded and flexible, with a
broad range of interests and abilities.
ENFJ
Popular and sensitive, with outstanding
people skills. Externally focused, with real
concern for how others think and feel. Usually
dislike being alone. They see everything from
the human angle, and dislike impersonal
analysis. Very effective at managing people
issues, and leading group discussions.
Interested in serving others, and probably
place the needs of others over their ownplace the needs of others over their own
needs.
ENTP
Creative, resourceful, and intellectually
quick. Good at a broad range of things.
Enjoy debating issues, and may be into
"one-up-manship". They get very excited
about new ideas and projects, but may
neglect the more routine aspects of life.
Generally outspoken and assertive. They
enjoy people and are stimulating
company. Excellent ability to understand
concepts and apply logic to find solutions.
ENTJ
Assertive and outspoken - they are driven to
lead. Excellent ability to understand difficult
organizational problems and create solid
solutions. Intelligent and well-informed, they
usually excel at public speaking. They value
knowledge and competence, and usually have
little patience with inefficiency or
disorganization.

34. • Self-management
Understand strengths, weaknesses and
preferences
Predict, plan and avoid failures
Self-optimize, excel and adapt
Application
Self-optimize, excel and adapt
• Managing relationships
Understand strengths, weaknesses and
preferences
Predict, plan and avoid conflict and failures
Adapt and support

35. • Try to accommodate type mismatch
Remember, type mismatch is unavoidable
Remember, 50% of the mismatch is caused by
you ☺
Application
Do not blame the person for something s/he
hasn’t done ☺
Do not forget that the perceived weakness
could be a real advantage in a different
situation

36. • Diversity
Recognizing differences as natural
Appreciating diversity
Developing complementary work teams
Application
Developing complementary work teams
Expertise and task assignment
Caution: other components of behaviour +
development of others
• Synergy
n1 + n2 = k x (n1 + n2)
where k > 1

38. • For those traits that are not dominant
Avoid over exposure and over commitment
Understand the consequences
Cognition (thinking)
Application: Other Considerations
Cognition (thinking)
Self-monitoring
Positive attitude
Learning and practice
Changes in socio-technical environment

39. Can you visualize someone who:
• would panic under stress, is a frequent worrier or
would be intensely tense on slightest criticism
• is very open to change, new idea or suggestion
• would do all it takes to get the job done, on time,
Exercise: Trait Recognition
• would do all it takes to get the job done, on time,
even if it involves taking on enormous stress
• Enjoys parties and gatherings, is talkative even
with strangers, is adventurous and is action
oriented
• Is very considerate and sympathetic, and works
hard to ensure that others feelings are not hurt

40. • Identify a trait that you perceive as a
“weakness”, then think of a situation
where it could be utilized as a strength
Exercise: “Undesirable” Traits

41. • Awareness and recognition is the first step
towards change
• After self-evaluating your personality,
observe other available templates and see
how that may help you in adapting into a
Afterthoughts
how that may help you in adapting into a
“new” person or adopting a different
response set
• If no traits are absolutely bad, then
recognize that differences, perspectives
and conflicts are actually opportunities to
broaden our thinking and prospects

42. • While dealing with people, lose your
spectacle and put on their glasses – try to
understand first before being understood
Final Word

43. And the Educated PersonAnd the Educated Person

44. What is Critical Thinking?
Problem solving
Analyzing information
Interpreting information
Recognizing biasRecognizing bias
Understanding diverse points of view
Applying information
Learning!

45. Becoming a Fair-Minded
Critical Thinker
Our ability to be fair-minded is the result of cognitive
and socio-emotional development. We must all
recognize that to be fair-minded we must develop
traits such as intellectual humility, intellectualtraits such as intellectual humility, intellectual
integrity, intellectual courage, intellectual autonomy,
intellectual empathy, intellectual perseverance, and
confidence in reason.

46. Weak vs. Strong Critical Thinking
A weak-sense thinker is a Sophist. The sophist is one who
seeks to win an argument regardless of whether there are
problems in the thinking being used, regardless of whether
relevant viewpoints are being ignored. The objective is to
win.win.
Strong-sense critical thinkers are not easily tricked by slick
argumentation, by sophistry, and intellectual trickery, they
use thinking in an ethical, reasonable manner. As strong-
sense thinkers, we question our own purposes, evidence,
conclusions, implications, and point of view with the same
vigor that we question those of others.

47. Fair-Mindedness Requires:
Intellectual humility: to develop knowledge of the
extent of one’s ignorance, being aware of one’s
biases and prejudices as well as the limitations of
one’s viewpoint, and it recognizes that one shouldone’s viewpoint, and it recognizes that one should
not claim more than one actually knows.
What do you do when you are challenged on something
you think you know?
Can you name some of your false beliefs, illusions,
prejudices, myths and misconceptions?

48. Fair-Mindedness Requires:
Intellectual Courage: facing and fairly addressing
ideas, beliefs or viewpoints even when this is
painful, recognizing that ideas that society
considers dangerous or absurd are sometimes
rationally justified or simply a matter of subjectiverationally justified or simply a matter of subjective
taste. To determine what makes sense to believe,
one must not passively and uncritically accept
what one has learned.
Have you ever questioned your beliefs and then
questioned your identity?
Have you ever held to certain beliefs because of the fear
of rejection?

49. Fair-Mindedness Requires:
Intellectual empathy: to put oneself imaginatively
in the place of others on a routine basis, so as to
genuinely understand them. It requires one to
reconstruct the viewpoints and reasoning of othersreconstruct the viewpoints and reasoning of others
accurately and to reason from premises,
assumptions, and ideas other than one’s own.
What’s it like to have a disability?
What’s it like to be male/female/gay/lawyer/priest….?

50. Fair-Mindedness Requires:
Intellectual integrity: to be true to one’s own
disciplined thinking and holding oneself to the same
standards that one expects others to meet. It means
practicing daily what one advocates for otherspracticing daily what one advocates for others
(walking the walk).
Have you ever experienced cognitive dissonance? This is
believing one thing and doing another.

51. Fair-Mindedness Requires:
Intellectual perseverance: the disposition to work one’s
way through intellectual complexities despite
frustrations inherent in the task. Some problems are
complicated and cannot be solved easily (toleratecomplicated and cannot be solved easily (tolerate
uncertainty).
Have you ever tried to understand something or
someone and given up, or been invited to give up?

52. Fair-Mindedness Requires:
Confidence in reason: based on the belief that
one’s own higher interests and those of
humankind at large are best served by giving the
freest play to reason, by encouraging people to
come to their own conclusions through the use ofcome to their own conclusions through the use of
their own rational faculties. People can learn to
think for themselves, form insightful viewpoints,
draw reasonable conclusions, think clearly,
accurately, relevantly and logically and persuade
each other by appeal to good reason and sound
evidence.
Have you ever said “oh, you just don’t understand and
never will…”?

53. Intellectual Distrust of Reason
Faith in charismatic national leaders
Faith in charismatic cult leaders
Faith in the father as the traditional head of the household
Faith in institutional authorities
Faith in spiritual powersFaith in spiritual powers
Faith in some social group
Faith in some political ideology
Faith in intuition
Faith in one’s unanalyzed emotions
Faith in one’s gut impulses
Faith in fate
Faith in social or legal institutions
Faith in folkways or mores
Faith in one’s own unanalyzed experiences
Faith in people who have social status

54. Fair-Mindedness Requires:
Intellectual autonomy: thinking for oneself while
adhering to standards of rationality, thinking
through issues using one’s own thinking rather
than uncritically accepting the viewpoints ofthan uncritically accepting the viewpoints of
others. Independent thinkers are not willful,
stubborn, or unresponsive to the reasonable
suggestions of others.
Have you ever conformed to a belief that you later came
to reject?
Have you ever been rejected by your independent
beliefs?

55. The First Four
Stages of Development
Stage One: The Unreflective thinker
We don’t notice we are continually making assumptions,
forming concepts and opinions, drawing inferences, and
thinking within points of view.thinking within points of view.
Our egocentric tendencies at this stage play a dominant
role in our thinking.
We lack the skills and motivation to notice how self-
centered and prejudiced we are.

56. The First Four
Stages of Development
Stage Two: The Challenged Thinker
We begin to notice that we
Make questionable assumptions
Use false, incomplete, or misleading information
Make inferences that do not follow from the evidence we haveMake inferences that do not follow from the evidence we have
Fail to recognize important implications in our thought
Fail to recognize problems we have
Form faulty concepts
Reason with prejudiced points of view
Think egocentrically and irrationally
We begin to become aware that our thinking is shaping
our lives.

57. The First Four
Stages of Development
Stage Three: The Beginning Thinker
We are beginning to:
Analyze the logic of situations and problems
Express clear and precise questions
Check information for accuracy and relevanceCheck information for accuracy and relevance
Distinguish between raw information and someone’s interpretation of it
Recognize assumptions guiding inferences
Identify prejudicial and biased beliefs, unjustifiable conclusions,
misused words, and missed implications
Notice when our viewpoint is biased by our selfish interests
The purpose of the autobiography (culture, time, place,
raised, associations)
What are two traps that can derail the beginning thinker?

58. The First Four
Stages of Development
Stage Four: The Practicing Thinker
Using wasted time
Handle a problem a day (at least)
Internalize intellectual standards (ADEADCAT)Internalize intellectual standards (ADEADCAT)
Keep an intellectual journal
Practice intellectual strategies
Reshape your character
Deal with your ego
Redefine the way you see things
Get in touch with your emotions
Analyze group influences on your life

59. Self-Understanding
Think of the most self-centered person you know. This
may be someone who is fundamentally selfish or
arrogant. Describe the person’s behavior in detail.
Based on the person’s behavior, how would youBased on the person’s behavior, how would you
describe his or her thinking? What are their feelings
and motivations? Do they use others to get what they
want?

60. Fallacies of Belief
It’s true because I believe it.
It’s true because we believe it.
It’s true because I want to believe it.
It’s true because I have always believed it.It’s true because I have always believed it.
It’s true because it’s in my selfish interests to believe it.

61. The Mind’s Three Distinctive Functions
Thinking: to create meaning
Feeling: monitor or evaluate meaning
Wanting: allocates energy to action, in keeping
with our definition of what is desirable andwith our definition of what is desirable and
possible
For every positive thought the mind believes, there
is a corresponding emotion and value.
Ask yourself: what is the thinking that influences
me not to want to learn this? What is the value of
learning it?

62. The Three Functions of the Mind
Thinking:
Makes sense of
the world
Judging
Feeling: Tells us
how we are
doing
Happy
Sad
Wanting: Drives
us to act as we
do
Goals
Perceiving
Analyzing
Clarifying
Determining
Comparing
synthesizing
Sad
Depressed
Anxious
Stressed
Calm
Worried
excited
Desires
Purposes
agendas
Values
motives

63. Learn Both Intellectually and
Emotionally
In order to learn and remember something, it must be
meaningful to our lives and therefore, must have
affective connotation and a value attached to it.
How does one use motivation to put a different spin onHow does one use motivation to put a different spin on
a domain that has previously been assumed
unimportant and not valuable?

64. The Parts of Thinking
Reasoning: the mental process the mind uses to
make sense of whatever we seek to understand.
We draw conclusions on the basis of reasons
(decisions, interpretations, inferences).(decisions, interpretations, inferences).
Whenever we think, we think for a purpose, within
a point of view, based on assumptions, leading to
implications and consequences. We use data, facts,
and experiences to make inferences and judgments
based on concepts and theories to answer a
question or solve a problem.

65. Questions Implied by the Universal
Structures of Thought
What is my fundamental purpose (goals, desires, needs,
values)?
What is the key question I am trying to answer?
What information do I need to answer my question?What information do I need to answer my question?
What is the most basic concept in the question?
What assumptions am I using in my reasoning?
What is my point of view with respect to the issue?
What are my most fundamental inferences or conclusions?
What are the implications for my reasoning (if I am
correct)?

66. Reasoning
Purpose: Humans reason in line with their goals, values,
needs and desires
Point of view: our thinking has a focus or orientation
Concepts: general categories or ideas by which we
interpret, classify, or group the info we use in thinking
Concepts: general categories or ideas by which we
interpret, classify, or group the info we use in thinking
We often face questions we need to answer, problems we
need to solve, issues we need to resolve
Information in our reasoning: facts, data or experiences to
support our conclusions
Jack and Jill

67. How the Parts of
Thinking Fit Together
Our purpose affects the manner in which we ask questions
The manner in which we ask questions affects the
information we gather
The information we gather affects the way we interpret it
The way we interpret information affects the way weThe way we interpret information affects the way we
conceptualize it
The way we conceptualize information affects the
assumptions we make
The assumptions we make affect the implications that
follow from our thinking
The implications that follow affect the way we see things –
our point of view

68. Best ThinkersThink to some purpose
Take command of concepts
Assess information
Inert information: memorized, but we don’t understand
Activated ignorance: actively using false information
Activated knowledge: actively using true informationActivated knowledge: actively using true information
that leads us to more knowledge
Distinguish between information, inferences and
assumptions
Think through implications
Think across points of view

69. Intellectual Standards and the Elements
of Reasoning
Clarity
Accuracy
Precision
Relevance
Depth
Purpose, goal, end in view
Question at issue or problem to
be solved
Information, data, facts,
observations, experiencesDepth
Breadth
Logic
Significance
Fairness
observations, experiences
Implications and consequences
Concepts, theories, definitions,
axioms, laws, principles, models
Points of view, frames of
reference, perspective,
orientation

70. Ask Questions that Lead to
Good Thinking
Three kinds of Questions
Questions of fact: require evidence and reasoning within
a system, a correct answer, lead to knowledge
Questions of preference: call for stating a subjectiveQuestions of preference: call for stating a subjective
preference, a subjective opinion, cannot be assessed
Questions of judgment: require evidence and reasoning
within multiple systems, better and worse answers,
require reasoned judgment

71. Questioning Your Questions
Questions of purpose force us to define our task
Questions of information force us to look at our
sources of information as well as the quality of our
informationinformation
Questions of interpretation force us to examine how
we are organizing or giving meaning to information
and to consider alternative ways of giving meaning

72. Questioning Your Questions
Questions of assumption forces us to examine what we
are taking for granted
Questions of implication force us to follow where our
thinking is leading usthinking is leading us
Questions of point of view force us to examine our
point of view and to consider other relevant points of
view
Questions of relevance force us to differentiate what
does and what does not bear on a question

73. Questioning Your QuestionsQuestions of accuracy force us to evaluate and test
for truth and correctness
Questions of precision force us to give details and
be specific
Questions of consistency force us to examine ourQuestions of consistency force us to examine our
thinking for contradictions
Questions of logic force us to consider how we are
putting the whole of our thought together, to make
sure that it all adds up and makes sense within a
reasonable system of some kind

74. Socratic Thinking
Probing, analytic, synthetic, creative, connection-
forming thought construction of a logical system of
understandings leading to insight a natural way
to develop and test our understanding of content ato develop and test our understanding of content a
natural way to give life to content

75. Redefine Grades as Levels of Thinking
and Learning
Best Learners:
Continually assess their learning against standards of excellence
Are not dependent on instructors to tell them how well they are doing
Tie each step of their learning process to a self-reflective step of self-
assessment
Seek to enter the foundations of any subject and use that foundation toSeek to enter the foundations of any subject and use that foundation to
understand everything else within the subject
Seek to identify the most basic kinds of information used by
professionals within the field
Do not memorize random bits of information, their learning is
problem or question based
They state a problem, assess for clarity, gather information, check it for
relevance, form an interpretation and check the interpretation to see
what it’s based on and whether it is adequate

76. Developing Strategies for Self-
Assessment
Using profiles to assess your performance
Exemplary students
High-performing students
Mixed-quality studentsMixed-quality students
Low-performing students
Incompetent students

77. Exemplary Students (Grade of A)
The exemplary student has internalized the basic
intellectual standards appropriate to the assessment of his
or her own work in a subject and is highly skilled at self-
evaluation. They regularly:
Raise important questions and issuesRaise important questions and issues
Analyze key questions and problems
Recognize questionable assumptions
Clarify key concepts effectively
Use language in keeping with educated usage
Identify relevant competing points of view
Display sensitivity to important implications and consequences
Demonstrate a commitment to reasoning carefully from clearly
stated premises in a subject

78. High-Performing Students (Grade of B)
HP in thinking through a subject implies sound thinking within the
domain of a subject along with the development of a range of
knowledge acquired through the exercise of thinking skills and
abilities. HP students on the whole are clear, precise, and well-
reasoned, but sometimes lack depth of insight (especially opposing
points of view). Basic terms and distinctions are learned at a level that
implies comprehension of basic concepts and principles. HP students
points of view). Basic terms and distinctions are learned at a level that
implies comprehension of basic concepts and principles. HP students
internalize the basic intellectual standards appropriate to the
assessment of their thinking in a subject and demonstrate competence
in self-evaluation. They:
Often raise questions and issues, commonly analyze questions and
problems clearly and precisely, recognize most questionable assumptions,
clarify key concepts well, typically use language in keeping with educated
usage, commonly identify relevant competing points of view, display
sensitivity to many important implications and consequences, and
frequently demonstrate the beginnings of a commitment to reasoning
carefully

79. Mixed-Ability Students (Grade C)
Thinking of mixed-ability students implies
inconsistent/incomplete performance within the domain of
a subject along with limited development of knowledge
acquired through the exercise of thinking skills and
abilities. The MQ student often tries to use memorization
as a substitute for understanding. The MQ student:
abilities. The MQ student often tries to use memorization
as a substitute for understanding. The MQ student:
Sometimes raises questions and issues, sometimes analyzes
questions and problems clearly and precisely, recognizes some
questionable assumptions, clarifies some concepts competently,
sometimes uses language in keeping with educated usage,
sometimes identifies relevant competing points of view, sometimes
demonstrates a clear commitment to reasoning carefully from
clearly stated premises in a subject, are inconsistently sensitive to
important implications and consequences

80. Low-Performing Students (Grade D/F)
Low-performing students reason poorly within the domain
of a subject. They try to get through courses by means of
rote recall, attempting regularly to acquire knowledge by
memorization rather than through critical thinking skills
or insights requisite to understanding course content. LPor insights requisite to understanding course content. LP
students:
Rarely raise questions and issues, superficially analyze questions
and problems, do not recognize their assumptions, clarify concepts
only partially, rarely use language keeping with educated usage,
rarely identify relevant competing points of view, show no
understanding of the importance of a commitment to reasoning
carefully from clearly stated premises in a subject and are
insensitive to important implications and consequences

81. Skilled Learners
To be a skilled learner you have to be a skilled
thinker.
You must take responsibility for your learning.
You plan your learning by becoming clear as toYou plan your learning by becoming clear as to
what your goals are, what questions you have, what
information you need to acquire, what concepts
you need to learn, what you need to focus on, and
how you need to understand it.

82. Learn to use information critically and
ethically
The ideal of knowledge acquisition
To the extent we are committed to the development of
fair-mindedness, we are committed to knowledge being
acquired and used to minimize human suffering, toacquired and used to minimize human suffering, to
meet basic human needs, to preserve rather than destroy
the environment, to contribute to a more just world, and
to serve rational rather than irrational ends.
Disciplines seek knowledge not to benefit a select few
but rather to distribute benefits in the broadest and
most just way.

83. True Loyalty to a Discipline
True loyalty to a discipline is born out of recognition of the discipline’s
potential power for good in the world. It is not a commitment to
practices in the discipline as it stands. It is not given by the intensity
with which one defends the discipline. A person committed to the
discipline of history recognizes the importance and the power of
historical thinking in the world. For example, a history person
recognizes that:
historical thinking in the world. For example, a history person
recognizes that:
We are creators of history
We are products of history
Nonetheless, we are not successfully teaching historical thinking
History, as a written and taught, often reflects personal and social
prejudices
Ask yourself two questions:
am I coming to recognize the power of the discipline as a form of thinking?
Am I coming to recognize the limitations of the discipline in the light of
this present state of development?

84. The Gap Between Fact and Ideal
The following two phenomena are the root of much of the
misuse of knowledge in the world:
Human fallibility: All knowledge is acquired, analyzed, and put to
use in the world by individuals who are subject to the pitfalls of
human weakness, self-deception, and pathological states of mind
(e.g., prejudice, egocentrism, sociocentrisim)(e.g., prejudice, egocentrism, sociocentrisim)
Vested interest: Human knowledge exists in a world of power,
status, and wealth, all of which significantly influence what
information is acquired within any discipline, how it is interpreted,
and how it is used.
It should follow that we should be skeptical of any
description of a human knowledge-constructing enterprise
that characterizes itself as an approximation of an ideal.
Rather we should approach human disciplines as in some
state of contradiction between an announced ideal and
actual reality.

85. The Ideal Compared to the Real
The first essential step is to recognize the discipline as a powerful mode
of thinking and setting forth the ideal of the discipline. To set out the
ideal, ask yourself if the discipline were striving to function in an
optimal way in an optimal setting:
What would the discipline look like?
How would it function?How would it function?
How would it be represented?
How would it be taught?
How would it be applied?
Two important insights:
All knowledge in use in the world is subject to the pitfalls of human
fallibility on the part of the individuals using it.
Knowledge exists in a world driven by the pursuit of power, status,
and wealth, each of which exacts its toll.

86. Conclusion
As critical thinkers, we must be careful not to assume
that things are actually the way they are represented to
be in human life.
To understand a field of knowledge we mustTo understand a field of knowledge we must
understand it realistically.

87. Learn to Use Information Critically and
Ethically
Men, whose life lies in the cultivation of one science,
or the exercise of one method of thought, have no
more right…to generalize upon the basis of their own
pursuit but beyond its range, than the schoolboy…pursuit but beyond its range, than the schoolboy…
John Henry Newman, The Idea of a University, 1852

88. Realistic UnderstandingIn this chapter we will focus our analysis on one
domain, that of psychology, and on the allied
fields of mental health. We begin with the premise
that the art of thinking psychologically is a
powerful form of thought, important to human
well-being and self-insight. We also begin with thewell-being and self-insight. We also begin with the
hypothesis that the benefit from this powerful
mode of thought is diminished by the manner in
which it is sometimes taught and used by
psychologists and by those trained by
psychologists in the fields of mental health.

89. Realistic UnderstandingWe need to examine all information with full
awareness that, though virtually all the
information we are presented with is presented to
us as true– as something known and not just
believed—it may well be false or mere half-truth.believed—it may well be false or mere half-truth.
Politicians don’t say, “Everything I am about to tell you in
this speech is intended to get myself elected to a position of
power and influence—not to reveal the full truth about
what is really happening. I will therefore hide, to the best
of my ability, everything that puts me or my party in a bad
light.”

90. Realistic Understanding
Our minds do not have a built-in warning system to alert us to what we
have already taken in uncritically from our parents, our peers, the
media.
We reemphasize the theme that we are ethically responsible for the
manner in which we take in and use informationmanner in which we take in and use information
If we want to understand a field of knowledge, we must understand it
realistically, that it is an imperfect construction. If we want to
understand our learning of a field of knowledge, we must realistically
understand the imperfections of our learning, that even at best we
imperfectly learn what we learn
We have chosen psychology: because human good and harm seem
especially germane to its practice, and because there seems to be an
especially large gap between the ideal promised by psychology and the
realities of its actual practice.

91. Be a Critic, Not a Cynic
A cynic views all knowledge as baseless, such an absolute
negation of knowledge cannot be justified for it is, in effect,
an arrogant claim to know the status of all knowledge-that
there is nothing we can claim to know absolutely.there is nothing we can claim to know absolutely.
The spirit of critical thinking is intellectual humility. It is
based on evidence that each of us must assemble
individually, and it requires heightened awareness of how
frequently humans make mistakes.
We can access that evidence if we overcome our egocentric
defensiveness. We must examine each claim to knowledge
one by one, evaluating each on its merits.

92. Recognize the Mental
Nature of Knowledge
Human knowledge exists as knowledge in the
human mind, and as an imperfect learner, we are
eminently fallible. We must get into the habit of
evaluating what we come to think and believe.evaluating what we come to think and believe.
Further, all minds, without exception are
possessed by prejudices, vested interests, fears,
insecurities, and social ideology.
Paradoxically, whenever knowledge exists, some
degree of ignorance also exists in some
relationship to it.

93. Develop Awareness of the Harm from
Misuse of Information
Intelligent people with a lofty sense of their
importance, pursuing their vested interests, are
more dangerous to the well-being of others than
are unintelligent people stumbling along unskilledare unintelligent people stumbling along unskilled
in the art of deception and manipulation.
The use of ethical knowledge begins with a
recognition of the limits of one’s knowledge and of
the various influences that are likely to undermine
the proper use of that knowledge.

94. Strategic Thinking
Strategic thinking has two phases:
The understanding of an important principle of mental functioning.
Using that understanding strategically to produce a mental change in
ourselves.
Understanding. The human mind has three interrelated functions: thinking,
feeling, and desiring or wanting. These functions are interrelated and
interdependent.
feeling, and desiring or wanting. These functions are interrelated and
interdependent.
The Strategy. Whenever you find yourself having what may be irrational
emotions or desires, figure out the thinking that probably is generating those
emotions and desires. Then develop rational thinking with which to replace the
irrational thinking you are using in the situation.
Explicitly state what the feelings and desires are.
Figure out the irrational thinking leading to it.
Figure out how to transform the irrational thinking into rational
thinking—thing that makes sense in context.
Whenever you feel the negative emotion, repeat to yourself the rational
thoughts you decided you needed to replace the irrational thoughts, until
you feel the rational emotions that accompany reasonable thinking.

95. Components of strategic thinking
An identifying component. You must be able to
figure out when your thinking is irrational or
flawed.
An intellectual component. You must actively
engage and challenge the acts of your own mind.
An intellectual component. You must actively
engage and challenge the acts of your own mind.
What is actually going on in the situation as it stands?
Your options for action.
A justifiable rationale for choosing one of the options.
Ways of reasoning with yourself when you are being
unreasonable, or ways of reducing the power of your
irrational state of mind.

96. Key idea #1
Thoughts, feelings and desires are interdependent.
If, for example, I experience a degree of anger that
I sense may be unreasonable, I should be able to
determine whether the anger is or is not rational. I
should be able to evaluate the rationality of myshould be able to evaluate the rationality of my
anger by evaluating the thinking that gave rise to
it.
Has someone truly wronged me, or am I misreading the
situation?
Was this wrong intentional or unintentional?
Are there ways to view the situation other than the way I
am viewing it?
Am I giving a fair hearing to these other ways?

97. Key idea #2
There is a logic to this, and you can figure it out. (pg. 413).
Questioning goals, purposes, and objectives. What is the central
purpose of this person? This group? Myself? I realize that problems in
thinking are often the result of a mistake at the level of basic purpose.
Questioning the way in which questions are framed, problems are
posed, issues are expressed.posed, issues are expressed.
Questioning information and sources of information.
Questioning interpretations or conclusions.
Questioning the assumptions being made.
Questioning the concepts being used.
Questioning the points of view being considered.
Questioning implications.

98. Key idea #3
For thinking to be of high quality, we must routinely assess it by
applying intellectual standards to our thinking.
Focusing on clarity in thinking. Can I state it precisely?
Focusing on precision in thinking. Am I providing enough details?
Focusing on accuracy in thinking. Am I certain that the information
I am using is accurate?I am using is accurate?
Focusing on relevance in thinking. How does my point bear on the
issue at hand?
Focusing on logicalness in thinking. Given the information I have
gathered, what is the most logical conclusion?
Focusing on breadth in thinking. I wonder whether I need to
consider another viewpoint(s)?
Focusing on depth in thinking. What complexities are inherent in
this issue?
Focusing on justification in thinking. Is the purpose justified or is it
unfair, self-contradictory, or self-defeating given the facts?