Ethical theories[1]

Ethics
What is Ethics?
 Ethics comes from the Greek word ethos which
means character.
 Philosophical science dealing with the morality of
human acts.-Paul Glenn
 Concerned with the questions of human moral
judgments-that is judgment of right and wrong with
respect to human actions.

• Ethics is also defined as practical and
normative science, based on reason, which
studies human acts and provides norms for
their goodness and wrongness.
• Moral Philosophy, in a sense that it deals with
morality, moral rectitude or rightness and
wrongness of an act.
(Source: Philosophical Landscape)

• Morality comes from the Latin word, mos or
moris, customs and manners.
• Ethics then pertain to individual character
while Morality deals on the consideration of
an act as evil or good.
• In Philosophy, Ethics then deals on the specific
area of study, morality of an act. (human acts
and values).

Difference between Ethics and Morality
• By way of applying the words.
• Ethics is theoretical science of good and evil.
• Ethics provides principles for morality of acts.
• Ethics pertains to reason.

Morality
• Knowing does not necessarily mean doing.
• Ethics does not guarantee man to be moral.
• When one does the theories of Ethics, he performs
ethics.
• Morality: praxis of theory (ethics).
• Morality- Applied Ethics.

• Ethics or Moral Philosophy as it is sometimes
called, is the systematic endeavor to
understand moral concepts and justify moral
principles and theories.
• It undertakes to analyze such concepts as
right, wrong, permissible, ought, good, evil in
their moral contexts.

Ethics from other philosophy
• Whereas much of philosophy is concerned
with knowledge of “what is” (e.g.
metaphysics, philo of science, philo of mind,
philo of religion), ethics is concerned with
action and practice.
• It is concerned with values -not the “whats” of
things but what ought to be.

Source of Ethics
SUBJECTIVITY
VS.
OBJECTIVITY

Where does morality come from?
1. Has morality always
been part of the
world, originating
from some
supernatural being or
embedded within the
nature itself?
 supported by the
objectivists in their
objective view of
morality.

2. Is morality strictly
product of human’s
rationality?
 This is the one answered
by the subjectivists in
their subjective view of
morality.

MORALITY AS OBJECTIVE
VS.
INTERPRETATION

Morality as objective
A. Morality comes from supernatural being
 The objectivists believe that morality comes from
the higher, supernatural or absolute being.
E.g. gods-Greeks and Romans; Yahweh- Jews; Trinity-
Catholics; Allah-Muslims; Brahma-Hindus.
• Objectivists hold that supernatural beings
possess morality and reveal it only to human
beings.

Morality as Objective
B. Morality comes from natural law
According to the objectivists, there are natural
laws that humans must adhere to, for him to
be considered moral.
These natural laws are embedded in nature.
E.g. Homosexuality is wrong because…..

People are equally human, they ought
to be treated equally. Sometimes when
people refer to the basic dignity of humanity
or human beings, they have in mind the idea
that there is something fundamental about
human beings that is worthy of moral regard.

Subjective view
“I don’t believe in morality of the
individual, and I consider Ethics
to be an exclusively human
concern with no superhuman
authority behind it.”

Subjective view of morality
A. Morality strictly comes from human beings
 Things can have values only if there is human being
who put values on it.
 If there are no human beings there will have no
values.

…..Subjective view
• Possibility of the existence of supernatural
being but…..
• based on faith and there is no conclusive
proof of the existence of supernatural being.
• There are diverse practices and traditions in
beliefs and values.
(Jacques Thiroux: Ethics: Theory and Practice)

B. Moral laws as prescriptive
Natural laws in science are descriptive.
E.g. Law of gravity
Moral laws are prescriptive in a sense that it
tells what should and should not; ought to and
ought not to.

Ethical Theories
• Ethical theory is
means by which
we justify a
particular ethical
decision.

1. Ethical Relativism
• holds that there is no correct moral code
at all times and peoples, that each group
has its own morality relative to its wants
and values, and that at all moral ideas
are relative to particular culture.

• It is the view that there is no absolute
morality, what is good is different for each:
a.) individual,
b.)social group
c.)historic period
• Goodness is relative to the circumstances of
the knowing subject.

……Ethical Relativism
• E.G. Artic Eskimos practice abandoning old
folks in the snow and allowing them to die of
starvation and exposure is morally legitimate.
Likewise, among some Eskimos, lending or
allowing one’s life to sleep with one’s special
guest overnight is an expression of hospitality
and respect.

…Ethical Relativism
• E.G. olog or trial marriage among some
Igorots and live-in practices among
Americans, which are done in order to test
marital compatibility. But in some cultures, a
man has an obligation to marry his brother’s
widow, whereas in other cultures, the burning
of widows is a common practice as an
expression of widow’s until-death-do-us-part
fidelity to her husband. In Africa, killing of
twins during birth is morally acceptable.

……Ethical Relativism
• All these varying traditional practices attest
to the moral claims of ethical relativism.
Whether an action is regarded right or
wrong depends upon the society judging it.
Of equal value are different sets or moral
principles, and when an individual
legitimizes one set over another, it is simply
the outcome of having been raised in a
particular culture. (E.G. Christians and
Muslims on marriage)

2. Hedonism- is an ethical doctrine which
claims pleasure as norm of morality.
 pleasurable is good
 pain is evil
 is a view that good involves happiness
and pleasure and evil as unhappiness
and pain.

• Pleasure in the context means satisfaction
of desire; hence the greater the pleasure,
the better.

a. A. Intellectual pleasure- derives from one’s
discovery of truth,
 Desire for knowledge

B. Aesthetic pleasure- refers to one’s
disinterested feeling of beholding
something beautiful.

C. Physical pleasure
 satisfaction of sensuous or sexual desire.

Good in the hedonistic view
• To understand hedonism is to understand
hedonist philosophy of life.
• For a hedonist, happiness is the highest
good, and so it must be made the ultimate
goal of life.
• To realize and attain highest good, we have
to satisfy our desires.

Suppress of desires = Pain
Suppress of desires = Suffering
Suffering = Pain
• “Eat, drink, and be merry, for tomorrow
you’ll die.”- formula of life

• Happiness for a hedonist can be gained by
satisfying one’s desires.
desire pleasure happiness
PROBLEM
• Desire------Pleasure-----Satisfaction---Desire…..

3. Stoicism
• a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in
Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early 3rd
century BC.
• The Stoics considered destructive emotions to
be the result of errors in judgment.

Epictetus, a Stoic
Because "virtue is
sufficient for happiness,"
a sage was immune to
misfortune.

….. Stoicism
• It considers apathy (lack of feeling) or
indifference to pleasure.
• Its advocates are called stoics (known for their
exemplary patience, self-sacrifice,
perseverance and long-suffering attitude).
• The greatest virtue for the Stoics is “peace of
mind”.

..Stoicism
• Apatheia or state of imperturbability as
moral norm.
• Attainable through apathy or indifference
to pleasure.
• Disputed hedonistic view because of endless
cycles of desires.

• Desires are endless cycles.
• Satisfaction of desire leads us to suffer.
• For the Stoics to attain lasting
happiness, we have to control our
desires and passions.

…Stoicism
• When we strive to suppress our desires and
passions, we will be able to develop the
virtues of self-discipline, self-control, self-
conquest and self-mastery, which for the
Stoics are very significant in moral
development.

 Self-control enables one to attain apatheia-
state of mental peace.
 Through apatheia, one has the control of both his
body and mind and so nothing can annoy him.
 Happiness can come only from mental peace
for the Stoics.

4. Epicureanism
• Advocates moderate pleasure.
• The Epicureans agree with the hedonists that
pain must be avoided, so that even the
pleasure which leads to pain must be evaded.

Epicurus
Pleasure and pain are
the measures of
what is good and
bad.
341 BCE – Athens, 270 BCE;
Founder

The purpose of
philosophy is to attain
the happy, tranquil life,
characterized by
ataraxia, peace and
freedom from fear.
The purpose of
Philosophy is also to
attain aponia, the
absence of pain, and
to be able to live a
self-sufficient life.

..Epicureanism
• There are three causes of pains that should
be avoided according to the Epicureans:
• A. excessive use; B.) abuse; C.) nonuse
• Too much sex or overuse cause pain and
nonuse also leads to pain while abuse of the
body to whatever way e.g. smoking,
intoxication and the like also leads to pain.

…Epicureanism
• Considers prudence as the highest virtue
which enables an individual to govern himself
by the use of reason.
• Intelligent choice and practical wisdom are
needed to measure: a.) pleasure against pain,
b.) accepting pains that lead to greater
pleasures and c.)rejecting pleasures that lead
to greater pains.”

Epicureans teach 3 kinds of desires:
a. Natural and necessary- refers to the need for
food, drink, rest, sleep which should be
satisfied moderately.
b. Natural and unnecessary- refers to man’s urge
for sex and marriage but man can survive
without it.
c. Unnatural and unnecessary- needs that are
dangerous and detrimental (injurious). (power,
fame, money)

..Epicureanism
• In opposition to Hedonists’ dictum: “Eat, drink
and be merry for you will die tomorrow.”, it
would be all right if the person will really die
tomorrow. But more often than not, one
miserable suffers today for what he/she has
eaten, drunk and sexually enjoyed yesterday.

5. Natural Law Ethics
• Teaches that there exists a natural moral law
which is manifested by natural light of human
reason,
• It demands the preservation of natural order
and forbidding its violation.
• In this theory, moral law is apprehended by
reason, which directs us towards good as goal
of our action.

• In the operation of the reason, it recognizes the
principle: do good and avoid evil, which is known
as voice of reason or conscience.
• I know I am doing the right thing if and when I
follow the voice of conscience; I feel a sense of
guilt or remorse otherwise.
• This theory says that we cannot run away from
our conscience, as Judas Iscariot allegedly tried
but failed when he betrayed Jesus.

Natural Law- natural order of things.
• The law derived from the nature of man.
• States the first and essential precepts which
govern the moral life.
• Expresses the original moral sense which enables
man to discern by reason the good and evil.

The concept of good:
1. Good is built in nature
 We have three natural inclinations: self-
preservation, just dealings and propagation of
our species.
 We are naturally inclined to preserve life and
self-destruction is unnatural for natural law
ethics.
 This natural urges led us to take care of one’s
life and life of others.

2. Good is treating others with same dignity
and respect as we treat ourselves.
This is the basis of justice which arises out of
human relations.
Any act of injustice such as subjecting others
to indignities, degradations, and inhumanities
is against nature.

3. We are naturally inclined to perpetuate our
species which is viewed as good.
Bioethical issues

Principles of Natural Law Ethics
A. Principle of Totality
• An individual has the right to cut off, mutilate,
or remove any defective or worn out non-
functioning part of his body;
• to dispose his organs or to destroy their
capacity to function only insofar as the
general well-being of the body requires it.

B. Principle of Stewardship
• Human life comes from God and no man is
the master of his own body.
• Humans are mere stewards or caretakers,
with responsibility of protecting and
cultivating spiritual bodily functions.
• We are obliged to take care of ourselves.

C. Principle of Inviolability
• States that life is loaned to us; hence, it is
inviolable and sacred.
• It is only God who has complete dominion
over one’s life.

D. Principle of Sexuality and Procreation
• Two-fold purpose of sexual union
a.) procreation and nurturing of children
b.)expression of loving union and
companionship
• Human life is to be actualized in marriage.

6. Consequentialism
 maintains that morality of an action is
determined solely by its consequences.
 Basically, it looks on the outcomes,
situation and from that one decides what
is ethical.
 Thus, from a consequentialist standpoint, a
morally right action is one that produces a
good outcome, or consequence.

7. Deontologism- Duty Ethics
• Greek: deontos: that which is binding,
right, proper; deon-duty
• Emphasis on universal imperatives such
moral laws, duties, obligations,
prohibitions.
• It is sometimes also called imperativism.

• It looks on one’s duties and obligations
in determining what is ethical.
• It is also known as Duty Ethics.
• An ethical act is the one that meets
obligations, responsibilities and duties.

Kant’s Ethics
• Others call it
deontologism for
its emphasis on
duty or obligation.
• Others call it
intuitionism for its
claim that morality
is founded in
human personality.

• What is morally right is solely a matter of
intent, motive and will.
• Intuition here means internal motive or
intention, hence it is motivist theory.

Universality?
• How can one know one’s duty in a given
situation?
• Is there a test for determining what one’s duty
will be under a particular set of
circumstances?

• One must judge his action in the light of how
it would appear if it were to become a
universal precept or code of behavior.
• One must test the act’s universability by
means of categorical imperative.
• E.g. Do I want every pregnant woman, without
exception, whether she be my sister, mother or
daughter, who is in the situation similar to mine, to abort
her deformed fetus?

Categorical Imperative
• It mandates an action without any
condition.
• It is a command or maxim that enjoins a
person to do such act without
qualification, thus lay down to universal
rule and ensures that person is acting out
of duty.

CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
• Distinguished from hypothetical imperative-
a command with condition or limitation.
Categorical imperative- performed out of duty
-entails oughtness, an obligation irrespective
of results, at all times and places.

Hypothetical imperative- out of prudence
-if you wish to achieve such end, you must
act in such manner.
E.g. If you wish to be physically fit, you will
have physical exercise.

Formulation of Categorical Imperative
1. Act only the maxim which you can at the
same time will to become universal law.
E.g. Stealing: Let the maxim be “should everyone
steal”.
• It would become universal law if everyone is
mandated to steal.
• You will then recognize your duty not to steal.

2. Always act so as to treat humanity, either
yourself or others, as end and never only as
means.
-No individual should be discriminated before
the law.
Different formulation:
“Do unto others what you want others do unto
you.”

• Everyone must be treated equally.
• Persons have inherent value of dignity.
• E.g. prostitutes (they are treated as
means)

8. Utilitarianism- (Latin utilis, “useful”),
-Greatest Happiness Principle
 the greatest happiness of the greatest
number is the test of right and wrong
 action is good if it produces as much or
more good than the alternative behavior.

…… Utilitarianism
• what is useful is good, and consequently,
• the ethical value of conduct is determined by
the utility of its results.
• Opposed to doctrine which claims, inner sense
or faculty, often called the conscience, is
made the absolute arbiter of right and wrong.

• No action is intrinsically right, moral or good.
• Choose the action the produce the most
benefits and least cost of pain and unhappiness.
????? Woman in vehicular accident or one who
needs kidney transplant?????

Principle of Utility
• By utility, we mean property in any object,
whereby it tends to produce benefit,
advantage, pleasure or happiness or
• By preventing mischief, pain, evil or
unhappiness to happen.

It is also called:
Principle of Greatest Happiness
- An action is good insofar as it produces the
greatest happiness for greatest number of
people, and bad insofar it produces more
harm than benefit for the greatest number
of individuals.

• Faced with moral decision, one should not
just consider one’s happiness or benefit, or
happiness of a particular person or group
but the overall balance of the greatest
benefits for greatest number of people.
• “Equal benefits or happiness for greatest
number of individuals concerned.”

…… Utilitarianism
Principle of Utility
Jeremy Bentham
Birth: London (1748)
• Bentham employed the utilitarian theory as a
foundation, not merely of an ethical system, but
also of legal and political reforms.

Mill’s utilitarianism
• John Stuart Mill, who made utilitarianism the
subject of one of his philosophical treatises
(Utilitarianism,1863), is the ablest champion
of the doctrine after Bentham.
• His contribution to the theory consists in his
recognition of distinctions of quality, in
addition to those of intensity, among
pleasures.

• Happiness for Bentham and Mill is intrinsic
good or good per se.
• Happiness is intended pleasure and absence
of pain.
• Pain- unhappiness.
• Pleasure-calculus of Bentham

Pleasure-pain calculus
1. intensity
• The more intense the pleasure, the better
2. Duration
-the longer it lasts, the better
3. Certainty
-the more certain and sure we are that it will
happen, the better

4. Propinquity
-the near or closer or more often it occurs,
the better
5. Fecundity
-the greater chance that it will be followed by
more pleasures, the better

6. Purity
-the purer the pleasure, the better
7. Extent
-the greater the number of benefited, the
better

• In Bentham’s view, ethical attitude is to
calculate carefully the amount of pleasure
and the amount of pain that any act would
bring; then the pain from the pleasure is
subtracted and the balance determined. If
there is balance in favor of pleasure then
that act is morally legitimate.

• Ethics can be put into scientific basis that is:
a.) Add the pleasures, b.) subtract the pains,
c.) strike the balance, and d.) make decision.
“It is better to human being dissatisfied than a
pig satisfied.”- Mill

9. Pragmatism
• Pragmatism is more of a theory of
knowledge than moral principle.
• As an epistemological view, pragmatism
holds that the true and valid form of
knowledge is one which is
a.) practical
b.) workable
c.) beneficial.

…..Pragmatism
practical it is the one which can be practiced
and produces practical results;
workable- one that can be put to work and
works;
beneficial- it benefits people.

10. Egoism
• Ethical doctrine that puts the self as
priority.
• Sometimes referred as mightism or power
ethics.
• One must seek to cultivate his skills,
empower himself and grab opportunities
that serve him.

.....Egoism
• Attacks altruism-selflessness.
• Ayn Rand has her own egoism she called
objectivism.
• She calls altruism as fake morality.
SELFISHNESS IS A VIRTUE!!!!!!!!!
E.g. A man helping a beggar....

11. Situation Ethics
• Joseph Fletcher- American Protestant medical
doctor.
• According to him, there are:
1.Legalistic approach-prescribes certain moral
prescriptions and norms
2.antinomianism- frees Christian from moral
laws.
-too liberal and unconventional, which may lead
to anarchy and more chaos.

• The ethical theory states that moral
norms depends upon a given situation,
but whatever the situation may be, one
must always act in the name of Christian
love.
• A situation in this context refers to human
condition or any state of moral affairs and
issues that demands judgment or action.

…Situationism
• Situationists cite 3 kinds of love:
1. Erotic love- means sexual love, which
normally relates a man to woman (may exist
between homosexuals)
2. Filial love- refers to affection that binds a
parent to his/her child, brother to sister.
3. Agapeic love- refers to love to one’s care,
concern, and kindness to others. It is
Christian love.

Why neither eros nor filia?
• These are biased and partial.
• It has preferences and motivated by interests.
• Agape is what Christ exemplified a love that
cares one well-being, regardless of his stations
of life.

….Situationism
• Love of or for one’s neighbor is love which
concerns for the well-being regardless of his
status in life as Christ Himself exemplified.
• It is characterized by charity, respect and
responsibility.
• This is the kind of love by which an individual
should act and settle what is right or wrong,
just and unjust, in a complicated situation.

• For a situationist, Evil means does not always
nullify a good end; for only the end justifies the
means; it all depends on the situation.
Circumstances do alter cases.
• An act that is right in some circumstances may
be wrong in others, that is, we may do what
would be evil in some situations.
• It is agapeic love that weigh the act means,
motives and consequences). E.g. lying to save
other’s life

Conclusion
• Making moral decisions manifests the
existence of freedom and rationality making
human existence different from other beings.
• Different ethical theories present the diversity
of human thought in the history of
Philosophy.

• One can be ethical and not moral but one
cannot be moral without being ethical
(employing the use of Ethics and Morality.)
• Ethical theories provide norms or even
guidelines but the moral aspect rests on the
praxis (acting part).
• A person thinks, decides and more
importantly, acts.

Ethical theories[1]

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Ethical theories[1]