Insulin and Glucagon are two key hormones that maintaining blood glucose level (or glucose homeostasis) in your body.
If there is a problem with your Insulin or Glucagon, you may have an imbalance blood glucose level. It may be either a high blood glucose level or a low blood glucose level.
This post will describe the hormonal regulation of blood glucose levels. Moreover, we will see how Insulin and Glucagon work together to maintain homeostatic glucose levels.
When glucose enters your systemic circulation, it goes to tissues, but glucose cannot enter your cells without Insulin.
Insulin helps in glucose uptake into cells. This means that Insulin increases the entry of glucose into your cells.
When you have a meal, incretins (GIP, GLP, etc.) release from your gut and go to your Pancreas. It stimulates Pancreas and releases Insulin.
Eventually, Incretins help to release Insulin. Due to this, Incretins are considered a natural anti-diabetic hormone.
After releasing Insulin from Pancreas, it goes to your blood circulation. It acts on the Tyrosine Kinase receptor that is present on the cell surface.
As soon as Insulin binds to the Tyrosine Kinase receptor, it facilitates the entry of glucose into cells.
Glucose also binds on the cell surface but acts on GLUT receptors or transporter like GLUT 1, GLUT 2, GLUT 3 and GLUT 4.
This is a normal process that occurs in the human body.
But our blood glucose level does not remain the same for an entire day; it fluctuates. Sometimes it gets high or low blood glucose levels.
To maintain this fluctuation, our Pancreas releases two crucial hormones – Insulin and Glucagon.
A comprehensive presentation on Diabetes Mellitus for undergraduate students from medical /dental/biotechnology /pharmacology education.It describes causes, classification, symptoms ,diagnostic biochemical tests,biochemical changes in metabolism,Management, drugs used for DM .Google images relevant to text are presentation.
Glycaemic Index A Practical Measure For Maintaining A Healthy DietGeoffreyOsullivan
An overview of methods to determine the effect of increased blood glucose after eating certain foods and linking this to desease risk and improved health
A comprehensive presentation on Diabetes Mellitus for undergraduate students from medical /dental/biotechnology /pharmacology education.It describes causes, classification, symptoms ,diagnostic biochemical tests,biochemical changes in metabolism,Management, drugs used for DM .Google images relevant to text are presentation.
Glycaemic Index A Practical Measure For Maintaining A Healthy DietGeoffreyOsullivan
An overview of methods to determine the effect of increased blood glucose after eating certain foods and linking this to desease risk and improved health
Controlling blood sugar (glucose) levels is the major goal of diabetes treatment, in order to prevent complications of the disease.
Type 1 diabetes is managed with insulin as well as dietary changes and exercise.
Type 2 diabetes may be managed with non-insulin medications, insulin, weight reduction, or dietary changes.
Medications for type 2 diabetes are designed to
increase insulin output by the pancreas,
decrease the amount of glucose released from the liver,
increase the sensitivity (response) of cells to insulin,
decrease the absorption of carbohydrates from the intestine, and
slow emptying of the stomach, thereby delaying nutrient digestion and absorption in the small intestine.
Blood glucose regulation, glucose homeostasis, factors regulating and under S...Mohit Adhikary
The slides explain about blood glucose regulation, glucose homeostasis, factors regulating and under Special Circumstances. Factors regulating Blood glucose level include the hormonal and non-hormonal.
GLP-1 is an incretin (hormone that increases insulin secretion in response to a meal), which is a 30-amino acid peptide secreted in response to the oral ingestion of nutrients by intestinal L cells.
GLP-1 receptors (GLP-1R) are located in islet cells, central nervous system, and other organs. GLP-1 is metabolized by the enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4).
Incretin effect is a phenomenon whereby a glucose load delivered orally produces a much greater insulin secretion than the same glucose load administered intravenously.
This presentation is an overview of the entire GLP-1 system, followed by an introduction to leveraging its therapeutic potential using GLP-1 analogues (Exenatide, Liraglutide, Lixisenatide, Albiglutide, Dulaglutide) and DPP-4 inhibitors (Sitagliptin, Vildagliptin, Saxagliptin, Linagliptin, Anagliptin, Teneligliptin, Alogliptin, Trelagliptin, Omarigliptin).
Shashikiran Umakanth delivered this talk at Manipal on 30th November, 2015
Endocrine regulation : EEC secretes regulatory peptide or hormones that travel via blood stream to remote target organ. Ex gastrin, secretin
Paracrine regulation : regulatory peptide secreted by EEC acts on a nearby target cell by diffusion through interstitial space. Ex histamine, 5-HT
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a significant public health problem associated with many debilitating health conditions
This presentation will briefly tackle management of Diabetes
Controlling blood sugar (glucose) levels is the major goal of diabetes treatment, in order to prevent complications of the disease.
Type 1 diabetes is managed with insulin as well as dietary changes and exercise.
Type 2 diabetes may be managed with non-insulin medications, insulin, weight reduction, or dietary changes.
Medications for type 2 diabetes are designed to
increase insulin output by the pancreas,
decrease the amount of glucose released from the liver,
increase the sensitivity (response) of cells to insulin,
decrease the absorption of carbohydrates from the intestine, and
slow emptying of the stomach, thereby delaying nutrient digestion and absorption in the small intestine.
Blood glucose regulation, glucose homeostasis, factors regulating and under S...Mohit Adhikary
The slides explain about blood glucose regulation, glucose homeostasis, factors regulating and under Special Circumstances. Factors regulating Blood glucose level include the hormonal and non-hormonal.
GLP-1 is an incretin (hormone that increases insulin secretion in response to a meal), which is a 30-amino acid peptide secreted in response to the oral ingestion of nutrients by intestinal L cells.
GLP-1 receptors (GLP-1R) are located in islet cells, central nervous system, and other organs. GLP-1 is metabolized by the enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4).
Incretin effect is a phenomenon whereby a glucose load delivered orally produces a much greater insulin secretion than the same glucose load administered intravenously.
This presentation is an overview of the entire GLP-1 system, followed by an introduction to leveraging its therapeutic potential using GLP-1 analogues (Exenatide, Liraglutide, Lixisenatide, Albiglutide, Dulaglutide) and DPP-4 inhibitors (Sitagliptin, Vildagliptin, Saxagliptin, Linagliptin, Anagliptin, Teneligliptin, Alogliptin, Trelagliptin, Omarigliptin).
Shashikiran Umakanth delivered this talk at Manipal on 30th November, 2015
Endocrine regulation : EEC secretes regulatory peptide or hormones that travel via blood stream to remote target organ. Ex gastrin, secretin
Paracrine regulation : regulatory peptide secreted by EEC acts on a nearby target cell by diffusion through interstitial space. Ex histamine, 5-HT
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a significant public health problem associated with many debilitating health conditions
This presentation will briefly tackle management of Diabetes
The pancreas arises from the embryonic foregut.
a.The EXOCRINE:pancreas excretes enzymes and bicarbonate to the duodenum.
b.The ENDOCRINE pancrease secretes hormones to the circulation.
Acinar cells (forming most of the pancreas) have Exocrine function
Secrete digestive enzymes
Islet cells (of Langerhans) have Endocrine function.
Blood glucose must be tightly regulated
Normally, insulin and glucagon work together to ensure it is
Problems arise when this regulation fails
Insulin and glucagon help maintain blood sugar levels. Glucagon helps prevent blood sugar from dropping, while insulin stops it from rising too high. Insulin and glucagon work together in a balance and play a vital role in regulating a person's blood sugar levels. Glucagon breaks down glycogen to glucose in the liver.
The endocrine system consists of ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the the blood stream and are carried to the target organs through blood
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PANCREAS PPTX.Saili Gaude
This lecture includes the anatomy of pancreas, structure of pancreas, parts of pancreas, its enzymes, trypsin, proteas and lipase and amylase, its functions, common bile duct, ucinate process, location of pancreas, pancreatic acinar cells, islet of langerhans and physiology of pancreas
What is the Difference Between Conjugated and Unconjugated Bilirubin?Sumit Sharma
Bilirubin is a biochemical parameter of your liver function test. Your doctor uses this tool to diagnose liver disease.
In the human body, bilirubin is a waste product of your hemoglobin produced during the red blood cells breakdown in the spleen.
Although bilirubin does not have a specific function, it is generally a component of bile juice. It is also called a bile pigment, which is yellow in color.
There are two forms of bilirubin in our blood.
One is unconjugated bilirubin, which forms during the breakdown of red blood cells, and the other is conjugated, which starts during metabolism in the liver.
The unconjugated bilirubin is a catabolic product of red blood cells. This non-conjugated compound is also known as indirect bilirubin.
Some possible reasons or diseases associated with unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia –
1. Hemolytic anemia
2. Neonatal Jaundice
3. Genetic factors
4. Drug induced unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia
On the other hands, Conjugated bilirubin is generally formed after the glucuronidation of the unconjugated bilirubin.
The conjugation process occurs in your liver and converts your unconjugated bilirubin into conjugated bilirubin. This type of glucuronidation compound is also known as direct bilirubin.
In simple words, direct bilirubin means conjugated bilirubin.
The elevated conjugated bilirubin indicates Conjugated hyperbilirubinemia.
This condition is most commonly seen in cholestatic liver disease.
Cholestatic is a medical condition where the flow of bile juice gets reduced or stopped. You may have this cholestatic liver disease in two forms – Intrahepatic and extrahepatic obstruction.
In this article, we will discuss bilirubin, metabolism of bilirubin, normal range of bilirubin, and its clinical relevance. Further, we will also know the difference between conjugated and unconjugated bilirubin.
Like diabetes, Fatty liver disease is also considered a Silent Killer disease because people don’t feel any symptoms in the initial stage of fatty liver disease.
It slowly comes into your body and causes chronic liver disease.
The severity of the fatty liver disease depends on fatty liver grades. Your liver condition will become more vulnerable if fatty liver grades get increase.
Fatty liver disease is a metabolic disease where fat gets stored in your hepatocytes or liver cells that, cause inflammation.
There are two main types of fatty liver disease – alcoholic fatty liver disease (AFLD) and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).
Fatty liver disease is generally graded based on the amount of fat stored and the degree of liver damage. This is called Fatty Liver Grades.
Simply, this fatty liver grade represents stages of fatty liver. There are four grades of fatty liver – Grade 1, Grade 2, Grade 3 and Grade 4.
Fatty liver disease is a silent disease; it comes with no signs or symptoms.
NAFLD (non-inflammatory or Grade 1 fatty liver) is asymptomatic, meaning you don’t feel any symptoms.
Still, you may have fatigue, thirst, anxiety, upper abdominal pain, bloating or discomfort, etc. These are the most common symptoms of NAFLD.
As the disease progresses, symptoms start appearing, usually in advance grading of fatty liver disease such as NASH (inflammatory fatty liver)
If left untreated, you may have a more severe liver condition that gets more complicated.
Although the exact cause of fatty liver is still unclear, but there are certain possible reasons to cause fatty liver.
A bad lifestyle is the most significant risk factor for developing NAFLD (Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease).
The good news is that you can reverse your fatty liver disease and even cure it.
If you get diagnosed early, it can be treated because some fatty liver grades are reversible, such as grade 1, grade 2 and grade 3.
But if you get liver cirrhosis or grade 4 fatty liver, that is irreversible. At this stage, your liver cells cannot reduce fat and can’t return to a healthy liver.
This post will discuss fatty liver grades, types, causes, pathology, symptoms, complications, diagnostic tests and treatment.
Dopamine injection is an inotropic agent that contracts your heart muscles effectively.
This injection is one of the primary emergency drugs in emergency hospital areas to treat life-threatening medical conditions.
So, the primary use of dopamine injection is to save patient life. That’s why it is also called Life Saving Drug.
This post will describe dopamine injection uses, side effects, action, route and dose.
Dopamine belongs to a category of sympathomimetic drug or adrenergic drug. This drug contains a catechol ring, that’s why it comes in the catecholamine category.
Dopamine is a potent agonist on dopaminergic receptors (D1 and D2 receptors).
It also works on adrenergic receptors (Alpha 1 and Beta 1 receptors) that mimic the effect of the sympathomimetic nervous system.
The significant therapeutic action of dopamine injection is
-Vasoconstrictor means to increase the blood flow due to stimulation of alpha 1 adrenergic receptor
-Cardiac stimulant means to increase the heart pumping due to stimulation of beta 1 adrenergic receptor
-Nephroprotective means increasing the renal blood flow due to stimulation of the D1 receptor.
Dopamine injection is always injected into a vein through an intravenous (i.v.) route of administration. This injection must be diluted in a sterile parenteral preparation such as 5% dextrose, normal saline etc.
If you receive dopamine injections, your vital organs will be closely monitored, such as your breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar level, oxygen levels, kidney function, etc.
Dopamine injection has the potential to cause unwanted effects or side effects.
Dopamine injection is only prescribed by an expert doctor.
You may have been given dopamine injections in emergencies such as congestive heart failure, septic shock, and cardiogenic shock with oliguria.
Knowing how to increase dopamine naturally is challenging and sometimes easier for most people.
In today’s time, we all are trapped or engaged in certain activities such as shopping offers, social media apps, video games, smartphones, porn videos, YouTube, Netflix, eating junk foods, etc.
But this kind of way to increase dopamine may give a harmful effect on your body. It could be a mental problem, stress, obesity, insomnia, etc.
If you increase your dopamine in natural ways. In that case, you become happier, smarter, more productive, more creative, more focused, and more social. Therefore, we should have a sufficient amount of dopamine in our brains.
In this article, we will discover how to increase dopamine levels naturally.
Dopamine is considered a happy neuro-hormone because it releases in the happiest or most pleasurable moment. It acts as a chemical messenger or neurotransmitter that helps to pass information from one nerve cell to another.
The main function of the dopamine neurotransmitter is movement, motivation memory and emotional responses.
If you think you have a low level of dopamine, you may have struggled in enthusiasm, movement, and motivation.
There are a lot of reasons that cause low dopamine in our brains. It could indicate a neurological disease such as –
-Parkinson disease
-Depression
-Restless leg syndrome
-ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperkinetic Disorder)
If you’re wondering how to increase dopamine naturally, I have mentioned the 9 best ways to increase dopamine levels naturally –
1. Avoid junk foods
2. Healthy foods that increase dopamine
3. Exercise releases dopamine
4. Get good sleep
5. Supplements that increase dopamine
6. Drugs that increase dopamine
7. Music release dopamine
8. Reduce stress from your life
9. Engage in good pleasurable activities
You will be shocked to know that there are 500 functions of the liver in our body.
Well! The liver plays a versatile role in the human body.
Your liver has a lot of functions, such as digestion, metabolism, detoxification, filtration of blood, producing essential proteins etc.
But do you know the primary function of the liver?
The primary function of the liver is the production and secretion of bile.
In this post, you will learn about numerous functions of the liver, anatomy, histology, and physiology.
e liver is the heaviest organ and largest gland of your body which is around 1.5 kg weight.
Your liver is covered by Glisson’s capsule, made of white fibrous connective tissue.
Basically, the liver is an intraperitoneal organ that presents within the peritoneal cavity. You can’t feel the liver because most of the portion is covered with the ribcage.
Your liver cells or hepatocytes are responsible for many functions of the liver.
It is believed that the liver performs more than 500 different functions, usually in conjunction with other body systems.
Here, we will discuss only the major functions of the liver.
1. Function of the liver in the digestive system
2. Function of the liver in bilirubin metabolism
3. Role of the liver in deamination and urea production
4. Function of the liver in glucose metabolism
5. Function of the liver in lipid metabolism
6. Role of the liver in drug metabolism
7. Role of the liver in production of essential blood proteins
8. Function of the liver in detoxification
9. Function of the liver in modification of Vitamin-D
10. Some other functions of the liver in the human body
Best pain killer tablet for body pain_pdf.pdfSumit Sharma
Painkillers are the most commonly used medicines that help reduce pain sensation and inflammatory response. These medicines are also known as analgesics or anti-inflammatory drugs.
Analgesic medicines also improve the quality of life in long-lasting pain and help to relieve different pain conditions like generalized body pain, headaches, joint pain, muscle pain, etc.
They are broadly classified into three groups –
1. Paracetamol (Antipyretic)
2. NSAIDs (Non-Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs)
3. Opioids (Narcotics)
Paracetamol has two important properties – antipyretic and analgesic. In other words, it can treat fever and mild to moderate body pain by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis in the brain region.
However, it does not have anti-inflammatory properties. So, it would not work in swelling and severe pain.
As far as the concern of NSAIDs, these medicines have three important properties – antipyretic, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory.
NSAIDs generally decrease prostaglandin production by blocking cyclooxygenase enzymes (COX-1 and COX-2) or only COX-2.
If we talk about Opioids, it has only one property – analgesic. It does not work in inflammation. It blocks pain transmission by interfering with opioid receptors.
NSAIDs are usually preferred; if there is inflammation and pain.
In contrast, opioids are the strongest painkiller. These medicines are usually preferred if there is only visceral pain (or pain in internal organs like the heart, kidney, intestine, etc.), after surgery, burn, and cancer pain.
This post has discussed the best pain killer tablet names for various conditions.
Here, I have reviewed the best painkiller medicine for fever, acute pain, toothache, stomach pain, joint pain, muscle pain, and other body pain.
Moreover, I have explored the safest pain killer in children, pregnancy, asthma conditions, peptic ulcers, and heart disease conditions.
Best Cough Syrup in India for Kids, Adults, & Pregnancy.pdfSumit Sharma
Selecting the ideal cough syrup is always challenging for everyone.
Anyone has a cough, and it is very common to have a cough and cold as the weather changes.
Although, all the coughs are not the same. So, it is evident that even cough syrups are not the same.
This post will review the best cough syrup for kids, adults, & pregnancy.
As we know, cough is a common symptom of lung infection. You need to understand the cause of the cough.
If your cough is persisting more than 8 weeks, you should not treat the cough yourself. It may be a lung infection or chronic lung disease. You must consult your doctor.
Your doctor may assess your cough based on intensity, severity, frequency, and sensitivity.
Suppose your cough is bothering you in daily routine activity or if it is an acute cough. In that case, you can take symptomatic relief or over-the-counter (OTC) cough and cold medications.
There are two types of cough syrups in the market –
-Expectorant, and
-Antitussives
These kinds of cough syrups are usually available in a combination of antihistaminic drugs, nasal decongestants, or bronchodilators like –
-Expectorant + bronchodilator
-Expectorant + antihistaminic drug
-Antitussives + antihistaminic drug
-Antitussives + antihistaminic drug + nasal decongestant
You need to understand – which type of cough do you have? We usually need clarification while selecting the best cough syrup.
If you have a productive cough, you should choose expectorant cough syrup, while for dry cough, you need to take antitussive cough syrup.
Choosing the best cough syrup for kids is also challenging because there are safety concerns.
As per FDA, if your child has a cough due to a cold or upper respiratory cough infection, it does not need treatment.
Still, if you want to give cough syrup to your children, then you may go with OTC medicines but don’t give any cough syrup to children under 2 years.
Here, I am reviewing the safest and best cough syrup for kids.
Diphenhydramine and dexchlorpheniramine are the safest and best cough relief medicine for pregnant women.
It would be best to consult your doctor before taking any cough syrup, especially in kids and pregnancy.
Albendazole mechanism of action_pdf.pdfSumit Sharma
We take albendazole medicine for deworming, get relief and forget. Many people have a curiosity to know the fate of the drug.
Albendazole is a miracle drug because it uniquely kills parasitic worms.
Albendazole medicine is basically used for deworming, and it comes on the essential drugs list of WHO (World Health Organisation).
Here, I have made an easy guide to understanding albendazole mechanism of action (moa) and pharmacokinetics.
After reading this post, you will know how albendazole works and how the body reacts in response to albendazole.
The principal mechanism of action of albendazole is inhibiting polymerization and the cell division process of helminths. But it also depends on the types of parasitic worms –
Albendazole mechanism of action for intestinal worms :
When you take albendazole, it goes to your small intestine and is directly active against intestinal worms.
Albendazole strongly binds to the β-tubulin site of worm parasites. As a result, it inhibits the polymerization process that destroys the assembly of the worm’s microtubules.
You don’t need albendazole in your blood circulation for intestinal helminths (such as hookworm, pinworm, roundworm).
In this condition, you have to take albendazole on an empty stomach so that it can stay for a longer time in your intestine. Albendazole does not absorb on an empty stomach but is rapidly absorbed with a fatty meal.
Albendazole mechanism of action for tissue worms:
Sometimes, parasitic worms penetrate your blood circulation and tissues via intestine to blood or skin to blood. In this condition, Albendazole act as a prodrug.
Suppose you have a neurocysticercosis problem (worms in your brain) and take albendazole with a fatty meal.
Firstly, it goes to your stomach and then the small intestine. From the small intestine, albendazole is rapidly absorbed into your hepatic portal circulation via the inferior mesenteric vein.
As soon as albendazole reaches the liver, it converts into albendazole sulfoxide by First Pass Metabolism. Here, albendazole sulfoxide is a real anthelmintic for systemic worm infections.
After reaching blood circulation, it easily crosses your blood-brain barrier (BBB) and enters cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) because albendazole is a highly lipid-soluble drug.
In your brain, albendazole get accumulates in higher concentrations. It effectively kills Taenia solium worms that cause neurocysticercosis.
Here, albendazole binds on the β-tubulin site of Taenia solium worms, inhibiting polymerization and cell division.
Albendazole medicine effectively works in intestinal and tissue helminths by binding on the β-tubulin site of worm parasites.
It is the safest anthelmintic with minimal side effects.
We should especially focus on the administration of albendazole – with food (for tissue parasites) or without food (intraluminal parasites). It is always best to take albendazole under proper medical supervision.
Rabeprazole sodium and domperidone capsules.pdf.pdfSumit Sharma
Here, we will discuss rabeprazole sodium and domperidone capsule’s uses, dosage, mechanism, side effects, warnings or precautions.
Rabeprazole is an anti-ulcer drug, whereas domperidone comes in the anti-emetic (or prokinetic) category. This combination of rabeprazole and domperidone medicines reliefs in stomach related problems like acidity, ulcer & gas.
Rabeprazole belongs to the proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) class. This medicine suppresses the excess acid in your stomach by inhibiting the proton pump.
Rabeprazole is a newer proton pump inhibitor drug that strongly stops gastric acid secretion. This medicine is a potent and fastest acid suppression than other PPIs. It starts to work within 5 minutes.
The combination of rabeprazole and domperidone is commonly used for treating ulcers and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).
Rabeprazole is usually preferred for an empty stomach. Because it is more effective if you take an empty stomach once daily in the morning.
When you take a Rabeprazole sodium tablet or capsule on an empty stomach, it goes into your bloodstream. And it gets converted into the active form of sulphenamide (sulfenamide).
This active form inhibits the proton pump H+K+ ATPase enzyme. In this way, it helps in acid suppression.
The use of rabeprazole sodium is not recommended in pregnancy and breastfeeding. It should be used if clearly needed. On the other hand, domperidone has shown teratogenicity in pregnant animals. So, the use of domperidone should be avoided during pregnancy.
Although, all proton pump inhibitor (PPI) drugs have almost similar efficacy and safety profile. But clinically, rabeprazole has shown better results than other PPIs.
Rabeprazole sodium is a well-tolerated, effective and safe proton pump inhibitor.
Based on clinical experience and few clinical trials, rabeprazole is considered stronger and more powerful than other PPIs.
In addition to providing satisfying relief of symptoms of GERD, rabeprazole sodium and domperidone capsules are also well tolerated.
The use of rabeprazole sodium and domperidones capsules are not recommended in children, the elderly, liver disease, heart disease, pregnancy, and breastfeeding.
Since it is a prescription-based medicine, so you don’t take self-medication. You must consult your doctor before taking a rabeprazole sodium and domperidone capsules.
Introduction
Have you ever thought about how does medicine move throughout your body? In this post, we will learn about the process of ADME in pharmacokinetics.
Suppose you have a headache and you take Disprin (Aspirin) tablet. But do you know how Dispirin knows where to go in your body or where the problem is?
Here, we will understand the entire journey of medicine in the human body. This post will be fascinating and informative for medical students, physicians, pharmacists, nurses, and general people.
So, keep reading to learn about ADME in pharmacokinetics –
What is meant by ADME in pharmacokinetics?
Pharmacokinetics is the branch of pharmacology (study of medicine) that deals with how drugs move through the body.
If we split the term pharmacokinetics. In Greek, “Pharmakon” means drug (or medicine), and “kinetics” implies movement.
In other words, pharmacokinetics is simply a movement of medicine in the body.
All medicines are indeed drugs, but not all drugs are medicines. So, medicine is considered a drug.
The pharmacokinetics would be basically an ADME study. The ADME in pharmacokinetics refers to absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion.
Every medicine must follow the ADME process (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion). Here, ADME in pharmacokinetics -
A represents absorption – medicine gets into the bloodstream.
D represents distribution – medicine moves from the bloodstream to tissue (or site of action)
M represents metabolism – biotransformation of medicine (drug change from one form to another form)
E represents excretion – medicine eliminate from the body via urine/stool
What are the 4 steps of pharmacokinetics?
For a good pharmacokinetic profile, a medicine must complete 4 steps of pharmacokinetics in the human body, i.e., ADME.
Step 1 Absorption, Bioavailability & Prodrug
Step 2 Distribution
Step 3 Metabolism
Step 4 Excretion
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
CDSCO and Phamacovigilance {Regulatory body in India}NEHA GUPTA
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) is India's national regulatory body for pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Operating under the Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, the CDSCO is responsible for approving new drugs, conducting clinical trials, setting standards for drugs, controlling the quality of imported drugs, and coordinating the activities of State Drug Control Organizations by providing expert advice.
Pharmacovigilance, on the other hand, is the science and activities related to the detection, assessment, understanding, and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug-related problems. The primary aim of pharmacovigilance is to ensure the safety and efficacy of medicines, thereby protecting public health.
In India, pharmacovigilance activities are monitored by the Pharmacovigilance Programme of India (PvPI), which works closely with CDSCO to collect, analyze, and act upon data regarding adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Together, they play a critical role in ensuring that the benefits of drugs outweigh their risks, maintaining high standards of patient safety, and promoting the rational use of medicines.
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Hormonal regulation of blood glucose level_pdf.pdf
1. Hormonal Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels:
Explained
Posted By SUMIT SHARMA
Contents
➔ Introduction
➔ What is anatomy, physiology and function of Pancreas?
Pancreas shape and size
Location of Pancreas
Parts of Pancreas
Endocrine and exocrine function of Pancreas
2. ➔ How is digested food absorbed into the blood and converted into glucose?
➔ How do hormones regulate blood glucose levels?
Role of Insulin
Role of Glucagon
Role of Somatostatin
➔ How is glucose oxidised to provide energy?
➔ Do brain cells require Insulin for glucose uptake?
➔ What is the difference between insulin and glucagon hormone?
➔ Conclusion
➔ FAQ
Q 1. Which gland secretes Insulin and Glucagon?
Q 2. Which hormone regulate blood sugar level?
Q 3. What are the hormones secreted by the Pancreas?
Q 4. What is the main role of Insulin?
Introduction
Have you ever thought about how our body regulates blood glucose levels
throughout the day? Today, we will discuss the hormonal regulation of blood
glucose levels in the human body.
3. Suppose you are driving a car and find improper brake and accelerator functioning.
What will happen?
Your car will be imbalanced; you may get an accident. You must have a proper
brake and accelerator in your car while driving.
Similarly, our body has a brake and accelerator. Here, Glucagon works as an
accelerator, and Insulin act as a brake.
These two key hormones (Insulin and Glucagon) are vital in maintaining blood
glucose level (or glucose homeostasis) in your body.
If there is a problem with your Insulin or Glucagon, you may have an imbalance
blood glucose level. It may be either a high blood glucose level or a low blood
glucose level.
This post will describe the hormonal regulation of blood glucose levels. Moreover,
we will see how Insulin and Glucagon work together to maintain homeostatic
glucose levels.
Let’s get started.
What is anatomy, physiology and function of Pancreas?
Our blood glucose level is regulated by Insulin and Glucagon hormones. These two
hormones are released from Pancreas.
So, let’s first know about Pancreas.
Pancreas shape and size
Pancreas is a J – shaped organ that looks like a hockey stick. The normal size of
the Pancreas is about 12–15 cms long, which is just about the length of your hand.
4. Location of Pancreas
Pancreas is generally located behind the stomach and above the duodenum
intestine. It is surrounded by many organs, such as the gallbladder, Liver, stomach,
spleen and small intestine.
Parts of Pancreas
There are four parts of the Pancreas –
● Head (3 cm) – The widest part of the Pancreas lies in the curve of your
duodenum.
5. ● Neck (2.5 cm) – The short part of the Pancreas between the head and body
part.
● Body (2.5 cm) – The middle part of the Pancreas between the neck and tail
part.
● Tail (2 cm) – The thinnest part of the Pancreas on the left side of the
abdomen, located near your spleen.
Endocrine and exocrine function of Pancreas
Pancreas is one organ, but it has two different functions –
● Help in digestion, and
6. ● Maintain blood sugar level
Our Pancreas also acts as a gland that works as an endocrine and exocrine gland.
This exocrine gland contains acinar cells that help in digestion. In contrast, the
endocrine gland has an Islet of Langerhans that maintains blood glucose levels.
Let me explain in Nutshell –
Pancreas contains two important cells – Acinar cells and an Islet of Langerhans.
Acinar cells have an exocrine function, which is present nearby the internal
pancreatic duct. These cells secret key digestive enzymes (like pancreatic amylase,
protease and lipase) and drain into your pancreatic and bile duct, eventually
reaching the small intestine. These digestive enzymes help digestion and
metabolism of your food like carbohydrates, fat and protein.
On the contrary, the Islet of Langerhans is a cluster of cells that are scattered within
the Pancreas but more abundant at the tail of the Pancreas. Around more than 1
million islets of Langerhans are present in your Pancreas.
These islets of Langerhans cells have an endocrine function and secrete some
peptide hormones from different cells like –
● Insulin from beta cells
● Glucagon from alpha cells
● Somatostatin from delta cells
● Pancreatic polypeptide from F cells
7. These peptide hormones are secreted in your bloodstream and regulate blood
glucose levels. Among these, Insulin and Glucagon are crucial hormones of the
Pancreas that manage your blood glucose level.
8. How is digested food absorbed into the blood and
converted into glucose?
When you have a meal, it starts digestion from your mouth by salivary enzymes
(like salivary amylase and lipase) and forms a Bolus.
This food bolus travels in your oesophagus pipe and reaches your stomach.
In the stomach, this food bolus completely breaks down by gastric juice like
Hydrochloric Acid (HCL) that is secret from parietal cells. Here, the stomach starts
churning and mixing food that converts into tiny pieces. This acidic food forms
Chyme.
After that, it travels into your small intestine. As soon as food enters your small
intestine, Incretins activate and secrets in your bloodstream.
9. These Incretins are gut hormones that are present in the epithelium layer of the
intestine. There are some examples of Incretins and their functions –
● GLP-1(Glucagon-like Peptide-1) that decreases Glucagon and increases
insulin hormone
● GIP(Gastric Inhibitory peptide or Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic) inhibits
gastric emptying and increases satiety.
● Other Incretins like secretin, CCK (Cholecystokinin), and gastrinare
digestive hormones.
After reaching blood circulation, these Incretins go to your Pancreas and stimulate
it.
Incretins work as a messenger that signals to Pancreas to secret digestive enzymes
(such as pancreatic amylase, protease and lipase) by Acinar cells and endocrine
hormones (such as Insulin and Glucagon) by the Islet of Langerhans.
Digestive enzymes go to your small intestine through the pancreatic and bile duct.
These pancreatic juices further break down food chyme and make it suitable for
absorption.
After that, your food’s essential macro-nutrients (glucose, amino acids,
monoglycerides, fatty acids etc.) get absorbed in the intestinal mucosa through
SGLT 1 cotransporter.
SGLT 1 cotransporter is a sodium-glucose cotransporter that absorbs glucose and
sodium in your intestinal mucosa.
Afterwards, it enters portal circulation and goes to your Liver by the portal hepatic
vein.
10. In the Liver, these macronutrients get metabolised and converted into glucose,
amino acids and cholesterol. Eventually, they circulate in your bloodstream.
On the other hand, endocrine hormones enter your bloodstream through the hepatic
vein.
Before going to the bloodstream, these hormones go to your Liver by the hepatic
portal vein, but they do not degrade in the Liver.
After passing through the Liver, Insulin and Glucagon reach systemic circulation
that regulates your blood glucose level.
How do hormones regulate blood glucose levels?
When glucose enters your systemic circulation, it goes to tissues, but glucose
cannot enter your cells without Insulin.
11. Insulin helps in glucose uptake into cells. This means that Insulin increases the
entry of glucose into your cells.
You would be thinking about how Insulin is released in our blood.
When you have a meal, incretins (GIP, GLP, etc.) release from your gut and go to
your Pancreas. It stimulates Pancreas and releases Insulin.
Eventually, Incretins help to release Insulin. Due to this, Incretins are considered a
natural anti-diabetic hormone.
After releasing Insulin from Pancreas, it goes to your blood circulation. It acts on
the Tyrosine Kinase receptor that is present on the cell surface.
As soon as Insulin binds to the Tyrosine Kinase receptor, it facilitates the entry of
glucose into cells.
Glucose also binds on the cell surface but acts on GLUT receptors or transporter
like GLUT 1, GLUT 2, GLUT 3 and GLUT 4.
This is a normal process that occurs in the human body.
But our blood glucose level does not remain the same for an entire day; it
fluctuates. Sometimes it gets high or low blood glucose levels.
To maintain this fluctuation, our Pancreas releases two crucial hormones – Insulin
and Glucagon.
Let’s understand the significance of Insulin and Glucagon in blood glucose.
12. Role of Insulin
Suppose you have a high glucose content in your blood. This increased blood
glucose level causes hyperglycaemia or diabetes mellitus.
In this condition, your Pancreas stops secreting Glucagon from alpha cells and
starts secreting Insulin hormone from beta cells.
This insulin hormone goes to your Liver and promotes the Glycogenesis process.
This means that it converts the glucose into glycogen form.
Insulin also goes to your blood circulation and increases the glucose uptake in your
cells.
Overall, it reduces the amount of glucose in the bloodstream during high blood
glucose level conditions.
13. Role of Glucagon
Suppose you have a low glucose content in your blood. This decreased blood
glucose level causes hypoglycaemia, which can be fatal.
In this condition, your Pancreas stops secreting Insulin from beta cells and starts
secreting glucagon hormone from alpha cells. This glucagon hormone goes to your
Liver and stimulates the Glycogenolysis process.
Usually, the Liver stores excess glucose in the form of glycogen by the
Glycogenesis process.
It releases in emergencies (like starvation or hypoglycaemia) when you don’t have
enough glucose in your blood.
Here, Glucagon helps break down the glycogen and release glucose through
Glycogenolysis.
This Glycogenolysis releases glucose in your blood circulation and prevents low
blood glucose or hypoglycaemia.
Role of Somatostatin
Sometimes Insulin and Glucagon get uncontrolled.
Overproduction of Insulin causes hypoglycaemia that decreases blood glucose
levels. For example – Insulinoma (tumour of the Pancreas, nearby beta cells) and
Insulin Resistance.
While the overproduction of Glucagon causes hyperglycaemia that increases blood
glucose levels. For example – Glucagonoma (tumour of the Pancreas, nearby alpha
cells).
There is a crucial role of somatostatin. This hormone controls the overproduction
of insulin and glucagon hormones.
14. It inhibits the secretion of Insulin and Glucagon.
Somatostatin is also called the Universal inhibitor of a peptide hormone in
pancreatic islets.
How is glucose oxidised to provide energy?
Our body needs energy. Whatever we eat eventually converts into energy.
When glucose circulates in your blood circulation, it has to go into your cells to
provide energy.
Glucose enters your cell by GLUT receptors.
In the cell, glucose gets breakdown by the Glycolysis pathway in your cell’s
cytoplasm.
In the Glycolysis pathway, your glucose molecules split into pyruvate molecules
and release some energy as ATP.
The pyruvate is an end product of your Glycolysis pathway.
After converting into pyruvate from glucose, this pyruvate goes to the
mitochondria part of a cell. Here, it enters the Citric acid cycle (or Krebs cycle).
In the Citric Acid Cycle, pyruvate gets converted into Acetyl CoA. This process
produces carbon dioxide (CO2) and some energy as 2 ATP, 6 NADH and 2
FADH2.
This NADH and FADH2 enter ETC (Electron Transport Chain), which also occurs
in mitochondria.
The primary role of ETC is to generate more energy in the form of ATP.
15. Do brain cells require Insulin for glucose uptake?
Insulin is a polypeptide hormone, and all polypeptide hormones are water-soluble.
Therefore, Insulin is a water-soluble hormone and does not cross lipid membranes.
Due to the hydrophilic property of Insulin, it cannot cross the blood-brain barrier,
that is lipid membrane. So, Insulin does not enter your brain.
Although, the brain does not need Insulin because the brain contains GLUT 1 and
GLUT 3 receptors. These types of GLUT receptors do not require Insulin for
Glucose uptake in cells.
● GLUT 1 and GLUT 3 – Brain
● GLUT 2 – Pancreas, Liver and kidney
16. ● GLUT 4 – Heart, Skeletal muscle, and Adipose tissue
What is the difference between insulin and glucagon
hormone?
Glucagon is a counter-regulatory hormone for Insulin. If you have too much
Insulin in your blood, there could be a chance of low blood sugar levels. In that
case, Glucagon is released from Pancreas and goes to the Liver.
In the Liver, it stimulates the Glycogenolysis process, converting glycogen into
glucose. After releasing glucose from the Liver, it enters your bloodstream and
maintains glucose homeostasis.
Difference between Insulin and Glucagon
Characteristics Insulin Glucagon
Production Alpha cells of
pancreas
Beta cells of pancreas
Function Lower the blood
glucose level
Increase the blood
glucose level
Hepatic
Gluconeogenesis
(formation of
glucose)
Decrease Increase
17. Hepatic glycogenesis
(glycogen synthesis)
Increase Decrease
Hepatic
glycogenolysis
(glucose synthesis)
Inhibit Increase
Glucose uptake in
muscle tissues
Increase glucose
uptake
No response
Deficiency Hyperglycaemia Hypoglycaemia
Overproduction Hyperinsulinemia
due to insulin
resistance or
insulinoma
Hyperglucagonemia
or glucagonoma
Conclusion
We have seen how hormonal regulation of blood glucose levels occurs in the
human body.
In this post, we discussed the role of insulin and glucagon hormones that regulate
your blood glucose level.
Insulin and glucagon hormones play a critical role in maintaining blood glucose
levels because these two hormones counterbalance each other to stabilize blood
glucose.
When blood glucose falls, your Pancreas secretes glucagon hormone to raise blood
glucose. Similarly, when blood glucose rises, your Pancreas secretes insulin
hormone to decrease blood glucose.
It was all about the hormonal regulation of blood glucose levels.
18. Please share it if you found this post informative.
Have questions?
Ask in below comment box.
FAQ
Q 1. Which gland secretes Insulin and Glucagon?
The Pancreas is an organ that also acts as a gland that secretes insulin and glucagon
hormones.
Q 2. Which hormone regulate blood sugar level?
Insulin and Glucagon are two crucial hormones that regulate blood sugar levels.
Q 3. What are the hormones secreted by the Pancreas?
Pancreas secretes some important endogenous hormones like Insulin, Glucagon,
and Somatostatin. These hormones release in your blood circulation and regulate
your glucose homeostasis.
Q 4. What is the main role of Insulin?
The primary purpose of Insulin is to increase glucose uptake into your cells and
maintain the glucose content in your blood.
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