The document is a process engineering guide from GBH Enterprises that discusses the design of homogeneous reactors. It provides definitions and outlines the key design steps, including determining reaction kinetics, selecting the ideal reactor type based on required residence time and flow pattern, and modeling different reactor configurations. Examples of equipment for gas and liquid phase reactors are also included to aid in the initial selection process.
The aniline point test determines the lowest temperature at which equal volumes of aniline and an oil sample fully mix. A lower aniline point indicates a higher aromatic content in the oil sample. The test is suitable for transparent liquid samples with an initial boiling point above room temperature. The aniline point can be used to estimate properties like cetane number, diesel index, and aromatic content, which provide information about the oil sample's combustion quality and suitability for diesel fuel. Extracting the oil sample with furfuraldehyde can lower its aromatic content and thus increase the aniline point.
This is the powerpoint file of the reactor design that was assigned to me during my final year design project. I solved the rate equations in MATLAB to calculate the reactor volume.
Distillation Sequences, Complex Columns and Heat IntegrationGerard B. Hawkins
Distillation Sequences, Complex Columns and Heat Integration
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SEQUENCING OF SIMPLE COLUMNS
4.1 Sidestream Columns
4.2 Multi-Feed Columns
5 SIMPLE COLUMN SEQUENCING AND HEAT
INTEGRATION INTERACTIONS
5.1 Energy Quantity and Quality
5.2 Heat Integration within the Total Flowsheet
6 COMPLEX COLUMN ARRANGEMENTS
6.1 Indirect Sequence with Vapor Link
6.2 Sidestream Systems
6.3 Pre-Fractionator Systems
7 COMPLEX COLUMNS AND HEAT INTEGRATION
INTERACTIONS
FIGURES
1 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SEQUENCES
2 A SINGLE SIDESTREAM COLUMN REPLACING 2
SIMPLE COLUMNS
3 A TYPICAL MULTI-FEED COLUMN
4 TYPICAL GRAND COMPOSITION CURVE
5 TYPICAL INDIRECT SEQUENCE WITH VAPOUR LINK
6 SIDESTREAM STRIPPER AND SIDESTREAM
RECTIFIER
7 SIMPLEST PRE-FRACTIONATOR SYSTEM
8 SIMPLEST PRE-FRACTIONATOR SYSTEM
9 PETLYUK COLUMN
Catalytic reactors have widespread applications in producing chemicals. Developments in catalysis and reaction engineering in the 1930s-1940s enabled rational design of catalytic reactors. Mathematical modeling of reactors has improved understanding of factors like intra- and inter-particle diffusion. Fixed bed reactors are commonly used and can be adiabatic, nonadiabatic with external heat exchange, or operated with reverse gas flow. Modeling reactor performance requires considering transport phenomena and kinetics at macro and micro scales within the catalyst bed.
This document discusses various types of chemical reactors. It begins by defining a reactor as a vessel designed to contain chemical reactions. It then covers basic design principles like reaction type and factors influencing reaction rate. It describes several reactor types classified by mode of operation (batch, continuous, semi-batch), end use application (polymerization, bio, electrochemical), number of phases, and whether a catalyst is used. Specific reactor types covered include CSTR, plug flow, tubular flow, and fixed bed. The document also discusses catalysis, including homogeneous vs heterogeneous catalysts and common catalyst types.
The Orsat apparatus allows for the analysis of flue gases by passing them through three absorption bulbs containing different solutions. The first bulb contains potassium hydroxide and absorbs carbon dioxide. The second bulb contains alkaline pyrogallic acid and absorbs any remaining carbon dioxide and oxygen. The third bulb contains ammonical cuprous chloride and absorbs any remaining carbon monoxide. By measuring the volume changes in each bulb, the apparatus can determine the percentages of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and carbon monoxide in flue gases, providing information about the completeness of combustion.
This lab report details an experiment to determine the carbon residue of a kerosene oil sample. The apparatus used includes a porcelain crucible, Skidmore crucible, chimney wire support, and sand bath. The sample oil is weighed and heated in the crucibles for 28-32 minutes until vapors cease burning, leaving behind carbon residue. The experiment found 0.01g of carbon residue in the 1g kerosene oil sample.
The document discusses catalyst preparation methods. It begins by classifying catalysts based on physical state, chemical nature, and the reactions they catalyze. It then describes different types of catalysts like gaseous, liquid, and solid catalysts. Solid catalysts are further classified as bulk catalysts, supported catalysts, and mixed agglomerates. The key steps in catalyst preparation are described, including precipitation, sol-gel process, impregnation, forming operations, and calcination. Different catalytic agents like metallic conductors, semiconductors, and insulators are also explained. The roles of support materials, promoters, and preparation techniques are summarized as well.
The aniline point test determines the lowest temperature at which equal volumes of aniline and an oil sample fully mix. A lower aniline point indicates a higher aromatic content in the oil sample. The test is suitable for transparent liquid samples with an initial boiling point above room temperature. The aniline point can be used to estimate properties like cetane number, diesel index, and aromatic content, which provide information about the oil sample's combustion quality and suitability for diesel fuel. Extracting the oil sample with furfuraldehyde can lower its aromatic content and thus increase the aniline point.
This is the powerpoint file of the reactor design that was assigned to me during my final year design project. I solved the rate equations in MATLAB to calculate the reactor volume.
Distillation Sequences, Complex Columns and Heat IntegrationGerard B. Hawkins
Distillation Sequences, Complex Columns and Heat Integration
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SEQUENCING OF SIMPLE COLUMNS
4.1 Sidestream Columns
4.2 Multi-Feed Columns
5 SIMPLE COLUMN SEQUENCING AND HEAT
INTEGRATION INTERACTIONS
5.1 Energy Quantity and Quality
5.2 Heat Integration within the Total Flowsheet
6 COMPLEX COLUMN ARRANGEMENTS
6.1 Indirect Sequence with Vapor Link
6.2 Sidestream Systems
6.3 Pre-Fractionator Systems
7 COMPLEX COLUMNS AND HEAT INTEGRATION
INTERACTIONS
FIGURES
1 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SEQUENCES
2 A SINGLE SIDESTREAM COLUMN REPLACING 2
SIMPLE COLUMNS
3 A TYPICAL MULTI-FEED COLUMN
4 TYPICAL GRAND COMPOSITION CURVE
5 TYPICAL INDIRECT SEQUENCE WITH VAPOUR LINK
6 SIDESTREAM STRIPPER AND SIDESTREAM
RECTIFIER
7 SIMPLEST PRE-FRACTIONATOR SYSTEM
8 SIMPLEST PRE-FRACTIONATOR SYSTEM
9 PETLYUK COLUMN
Catalytic reactors have widespread applications in producing chemicals. Developments in catalysis and reaction engineering in the 1930s-1940s enabled rational design of catalytic reactors. Mathematical modeling of reactors has improved understanding of factors like intra- and inter-particle diffusion. Fixed bed reactors are commonly used and can be adiabatic, nonadiabatic with external heat exchange, or operated with reverse gas flow. Modeling reactor performance requires considering transport phenomena and kinetics at macro and micro scales within the catalyst bed.
This document discusses various types of chemical reactors. It begins by defining a reactor as a vessel designed to contain chemical reactions. It then covers basic design principles like reaction type and factors influencing reaction rate. It describes several reactor types classified by mode of operation (batch, continuous, semi-batch), end use application (polymerization, bio, electrochemical), number of phases, and whether a catalyst is used. Specific reactor types covered include CSTR, plug flow, tubular flow, and fixed bed. The document also discusses catalysis, including homogeneous vs heterogeneous catalysts and common catalyst types.
The Orsat apparatus allows for the analysis of flue gases by passing them through three absorption bulbs containing different solutions. The first bulb contains potassium hydroxide and absorbs carbon dioxide. The second bulb contains alkaline pyrogallic acid and absorbs any remaining carbon dioxide and oxygen. The third bulb contains ammonical cuprous chloride and absorbs any remaining carbon monoxide. By measuring the volume changes in each bulb, the apparatus can determine the percentages of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and carbon monoxide in flue gases, providing information about the completeness of combustion.
This lab report details an experiment to determine the carbon residue of a kerosene oil sample. The apparatus used includes a porcelain crucible, Skidmore crucible, chimney wire support, and sand bath. The sample oil is weighed and heated in the crucibles for 28-32 minutes until vapors cease burning, leaving behind carbon residue. The experiment found 0.01g of carbon residue in the 1g kerosene oil sample.
The document discusses catalyst preparation methods. It begins by classifying catalysts based on physical state, chemical nature, and the reactions they catalyze. It then describes different types of catalysts like gaseous, liquid, and solid catalysts. Solid catalysts are further classified as bulk catalysts, supported catalysts, and mixed agglomerates. The key steps in catalyst preparation are described, including precipitation, sol-gel process, impregnation, forming operations, and calcination. Different catalytic agents like metallic conductors, semiconductors, and insulators are also explained. The roles of support materials, promoters, and preparation techniques are summarized as well.
The McCabe-Thiele method is a graphical technique for determining the minimum number of stages required for distillation. It involves plotting the equilibrium relationship between liquid and vapor phases on a diagram and constructing operating lines to represent the mass balances in the rectifying and stripping sections. Intersections between the lines indicate the number of ideal stages. The method was developed in 1925 and remains useful for preliminary column design. Key considerations include the feed composition and enthalpy, reflux ratio, and use of partial condensers or reboilers.
The document discusses fluid catalytic cracking (FCC), which is a process used in oil refineries to convert high-boiling hydrocarbon fractions into more valuable gasoline, diesel, and other products. It involves cracking heavier petroleum fractions with a catalyst at high temperatures in the presence of steam. The heavier fractions are broken up into lighter molecules like liquefied petroleum gas and gasoline. Key aspects covered include the FCC reactor design, catalyst regeneration process, and products produced including gasoline, diesel and light cycle oil.
The document discusses different types of chemical reactors used in industrial processes. It describes basic reactor components like tanks and pipes and operating modes like batch, continuous stirred-tank, and plug flow reactors. Key aspects covered include material and heat transfer, reaction rates, and the influence of temperature, pressure and catalysts. Common reactor designs are presented, such as jackets, coils and packed beds for heat exchange. The document also discusses homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis.
1) Material balances apply the law of conservation of mass to chemical processes, ensuring mass is neither created nor destroyed.
2) To perform a material balance, a process flow diagram is drawn with stream labels and unknowns assigned symbols. A basis is selected before writing balance equations.
3) For reactive systems, stoichiometric ratios from chemical equations are used in material balances to determine limiting reactants and calculate yields, selectivity, and conversion.
The document discusses various topics related to chemical reactor design including:
1. Reactor classification into homogeneous and heterogeneous types and examples like batch, continuous stirred tank, plug flow, and semi-batch reactors.
2. Factors to consider for reactor design like heat of reaction, operating temperature and pressure, and use of internal or external heating/cooling.
3. Methods for controlling temperature like adiabatic, isothermal, auto-thermal reactors.
4. Key principles of chemical equilibrium and kinetics that influence choice of process conditions.
Types of air preheaters and its advantagesPreeti Agarwal
A very basic word to word meaning is a device used to heat the air before further use is called as Air Preheater. They are also recognized as air heaters or air-heating pipe. It is designed to exchange heat energy with desuperheaters. Desuperheater is a Device which is been used to reduce the temperature of the steam in a high heat generation plants where large amount of heat energy or steam is released in the atmosphere.
OVERVIEW - FIXED BED ADSORBER DESIGN GUIDELINES
Fixed-bed adsorber design is based upon the following considerations:
• Adsorbent bed profile and media loading capacity characteristics for the specific application and adsorbent material used.
• Pressure drop characteristics across the adsorbent bed.
• Reaction kinetics.
Typically, adsorber design entails use of the following methodology:
• Adsorbent selection based upon performance and application information.
• Bed sizing based upon adsorbent loading data and service life requirements.
• Bed sizing adjustment based upon pressure drop criteria.
• Bed sizing adjustment based upon reaction kinetics criteria.
A discussion of each design consideration follows.
Knocking fundamentals (limitations and issues)Hassan Raza
It's all about Knocking in IC Engines, their limiting factors,issues,how to nullify their effect and how to control this effect and how to over come knocking inside combustion chamber.
Try to explain about the steam generator (boiler), it has three parts. Part 1 cover the types, part 2 about its parts & auxiliaries & accessories and part 3 about performance.
The document describes a double pipe heat exchanger and provides classifications of heat exchangers. A double pipe heat exchanger consists of two concentric pipes and connecting tees to transfer thermal energy between two fluids. Heat exchangers can be classified based on their heat transfer mechanism, construction type, flow arrangement, number of passes, and operating temperatures and pressures. Common types include plate, tubular, extended surface, and phase change heat exchangers.
Coal is composed primarily of carbon along with variable quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen. Ultimate analysis is also known as elemental analysis, it is the method to determine the Carbon,Hydrogen,Nitrogen,Sulphur and Oxygen content present in solid fuel.
This document describes gas sweetening processes used to remove acid gases like H2S and CO2 from natural gas. It focuses on chemical absorption processes using alkanolamine solvents like MEA, DGA, DEA, and MDEA in aqueous solutions. The general process involves absorbing acid gases from the feed gas in an absorber column, regenerating the solvent in a regenerator column, and recycling the regenerated solvent. Key unit operations discussed include the absorber, flash drum, amine/amine heat exchanger, regenerator, reboiler, and condenser. Process conditions and equipment details are provided for the typical operation of each unit.
Astm method for distillation of petroleum products at atmospheric pressureStudent
This document summarizes an experiment to determine the boiling range of kerosene using ASTM distillation. The experiment involves heating a 100mL gasoline sample in a distillation flask and measuring the temperature and volume percent distilled at intervals. A plot of the results shows the boiling range is 54-180°C. The document discusses how boiling range indicates a fuel's composition and properties, and how it affects safety, performance, and tendency to be explosive. Factors like vapor losses and condenser efficiency can impact the accuracy of the results.
Petroleum lab experiment 02 - octane number and cetane numberSafeen Yaseen Ja'far
The document describes an experiment conducted by a group of chemical engineering students to determine the octane number of gasoline samples and the cetane number of diesel fuel samples. It includes the aim of the experiment, theoretical background on octane and cetane numbers, methodology, procedures, calculations, and a discussion section with answers to questions about fuel compositions and effects of adding compounds.
This presentation discusses the Rankine cycle, which is used in 90% of power plants worldwide. It introduces William Rankine, who helped develop thermodynamics. The presentation covers the ideal Rankine cycle and modifications like reheat and regeneration cycles that improve efficiency. Reheat cycles add a second turbine, while regeneration cycles use extracted steam to preheat feedwater, improving heat transfer and efficiency. The document aims to explain these Rankine cycle variations and their advantages over the basic cycle.
In petroleum refining, the Crude Distillation Unit (CDU) (often referred to as the Atmospheric Distillation Unit) is usually the first processing equipment through which crude oil is fed. Once in the CDU, crude oil is distilled into various products, like naphtha, kerosene, and diesel, that then serve as feedstocks for all other processing units at the refinery.
The document discusses several types of chemical reactors, including recycle reactors, autocatalytic reactors, and considerations for optimizing reactor performance and operating conditions. It addresses recycle stream ratios, performance equations, temperature progression, and non-ideal flow concepts such as residence time distribution, states of aggregation, and mixing effects.
Centrifugal Compressors
SECTION ONE - ANTI-SURGE PROTECTION AND THROUGHPUT REGULATION
0 INTRODUCTION
1 SCOPE
2 MACHINE CHARACTERISTICS
2.1 Characteristics of a Single Compressor Stage
2.2 Characteristic of a Multiple Stage Having More
Than One Impeller
2.3 Use of Compressor Characteristics in Throughput
Regulation Schemes
3 MECHANISM AND EFFECTS OF SURGE
3.1 Basic Flow Instabilities
3.2 Occurrence of Surge
3.3 Intensity of Surge
3.4 Effects of Surge
3.5 Avoidance of Surge
3.6 Recovery from Surge
4 CONTROL SCHEMES INCLUDING SURGE PROTECTION
4.1 Output Control
4.2 Surge Protection
4.3 Surge Detection and Recovery
5 DYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS
5.1 Interaction
5.2 Speed of Response of Antisurge Control System
6 SYSTEM EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS
6.1 The Antisurge Control Valve
6.2 Non-return Valve
6.3 Pressure and flow measurement
6.4 Signal transmission
6.5 Controllers
7 TESTING
7.1 Determination of the Surge Line
7.2 Records
8 INLET GUIDE VANE UNITS
8.1 Application
8.2 Effect on Power Consumption of the Compressor
8.3 Effect of Gas Conditions, Properties and Contaminants
8.4 Aerodynamic Considerations
8.5 Control System Linearity
8.6 Actuator Specification
8.7 Avoidance of Surge
8.8 Features of Link Mechanisms
8.9 Limit Stops and Shear Links
APPENDICES
A LIST OF SYMBOLS AND PREFERRED UNITS
B WORKED EXAMPLE 1 COMPRESSOR WITH VARIABLE INLET PRESSURE AND VARIABLE GAS COMPOSITION
C WORKED EXAMPLE 2 A CONSTANT SPEED ~ STAGE COMPRESSOR WITH INTER-COOLING
D WORKED EXAMPLE 3 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF THE ANTISURGE PROTECTION SYSTEM FOR A SERVICE AIR COMPRESSOR RUNNING AT CONSTANT SPEED
E EXAMPLE OF INLET GUIDE VANE REGULATION
FIGURES
2.1 TYPICAL COMPRESSOR STAGE CHARACTERISTIC PLOTTED WITH FLOW AT DISCHARGE CONDITIONS
2.2 TYPICAL COMPRESSOR STAGE CHARACTERISTIC PLOTTED WITH FLOW AT INLET CONDITIONS
2.3 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPRESSOR STAGE AT VARYING SPEEDS
2.4 SYSTEM WORKING POINT DEFINED BY INTERSECTION OF PROCESS AND COMPRESSOR CHARACTERISTICS
2.5 DISCHARGE THROTTLE REGULATION
2.6 BYPASS REGULATION
2.7 INLET THROTTLE REGULATION
2.8 INLET GUIDE VANE REGULATION
2.9 VARIABLE SPEED REGULATION
3.1 GAS PULSATION LEVELS FOR A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
3.2 REPRESENTATION OF CYCLIC FLOW DURING SURGE OF LONG PERIOD
3.3 TYPICAL WAVEFORM OF DISCHARGE PRESSURE DURING SURGE
3.4 MULTIPLE SURGE LINE FOR A MULTISTAGE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
3.5 TYPICAL MULTIPLE SURGE LINES FOR SINGLE STAGE AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSOR
4.1 GENERAL SCHEMATIC FOR COMPRESSORS OPERATING IN PARALLEL TO FEED MULTIPLE USER PLANTS
4.2 ILLUSTRATION OF SAFETY MARGIN BETWEEN SURGE POINT AND SURGE PROTECTION POINT AT WHICH ANTISURGE SYSTEM IS ACTIVATED
4.3 ANTISURGE SYSTEM FOR COMPRESSOR WITH FLAT PERFO ..........
Gas - Liquid Reactors
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 Preliminary Equipment Selection
4.2 Equipment for Low Viscosity Liquids
4.3 Equipment for High Viscosity Liquids
5 REACTOR DESIGN
6 ESSENTIAL THEORY
6.1 Rate and Yield Determining Steps
6.2 Chemical and Physical Rates
6.3 Modification for Exothermic and Complex Reactions
6.4 Preliminary Selection of Reactor Type
7 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF REGIME
7.1 Direct Measurement of Reaction Kinetics
7.2 Laboratory Gas-Liquid Reactor Experiments
8 EQUILIBRIUM AND DIFFUSIVITY DATA SOURCES
9 OVERALL EFFECTS
9.1 Liquid Flow Patterns
9.2 Scale of Mixing
9.3 Gas Flow Pattern : Mean Driving Force for Mass Transfer
9.4 Gas-Liquid Reactor Modeling
9.5 Heat Transfer
9.6 Materials of Construction
9.7 Foaming
10 FINAL CHOICE OF REACTOR TYPE
11 SCALE-UP AND SPECIFICATION OF GAS-LIQUID
REACTORS
11.1 Bubble Columns
11.2 Packed Columns
11.3 Trickle Beds
11.4 Plate or Tray Columns
11.5 Spray Columns
11.6 Wiped Film
11.7 Spinning Film Reactors
11.8 Stirred Vessels
11.9 Plunging Jet
11.10 Surface Aerator
11.11 Static Mixers
11.12 Ejectors, Venturis and Orifice Plates
11.13 3-Phase Fluidized Bed
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
TABLES
1 REGIMES OF GAS-LIQUID MASS TRANSFER WITH ISOTHERMAL CHEMICAL REACTION
2 REGIMES OF GAS-LIQUID MASS TRANSFER IGNORING LARGE EXOTHERMS OR OTHER COMPLICATIONS
3 COMPARATIVE MASS TRANSFER PERFORMANCE OF CONTACTING DEVICES
4 COMPARATIVE MASS TRANSFER DATA
5 CHOICE OF GAS-LIQUID REACTOR TYPE
FIGURES
1 RATE AND YIELD DETERMINING STEPS
2 ENHANCEMENT FACTOR vs HATTA NUMBER
3 ENHANCEMENT FACTOR vs HATTA NUMBER : EFFECT OF THERMAL & OTHER FACTORS
4 REACTORS FOR LIQUID-PHASE KINETICS
MEASUREMENT
5 EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE OPERATING
REGIME
6 EXPERIMENTS DETERMINE THE OPERATING REGIME WHERE A SOLID CATALYST IS INVOLVED
7 THE MIXED ZONES IN LOOPS' MODEL FOR STIRRED REACTORS
The McCabe-Thiele method is a graphical technique for determining the minimum number of stages required for distillation. It involves plotting the equilibrium relationship between liquid and vapor phases on a diagram and constructing operating lines to represent the mass balances in the rectifying and stripping sections. Intersections between the lines indicate the number of ideal stages. The method was developed in 1925 and remains useful for preliminary column design. Key considerations include the feed composition and enthalpy, reflux ratio, and use of partial condensers or reboilers.
The document discusses fluid catalytic cracking (FCC), which is a process used in oil refineries to convert high-boiling hydrocarbon fractions into more valuable gasoline, diesel, and other products. It involves cracking heavier petroleum fractions with a catalyst at high temperatures in the presence of steam. The heavier fractions are broken up into lighter molecules like liquefied petroleum gas and gasoline. Key aspects covered include the FCC reactor design, catalyst regeneration process, and products produced including gasoline, diesel and light cycle oil.
The document discusses different types of chemical reactors used in industrial processes. It describes basic reactor components like tanks and pipes and operating modes like batch, continuous stirred-tank, and plug flow reactors. Key aspects covered include material and heat transfer, reaction rates, and the influence of temperature, pressure and catalysts. Common reactor designs are presented, such as jackets, coils and packed beds for heat exchange. The document also discusses homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis.
1) Material balances apply the law of conservation of mass to chemical processes, ensuring mass is neither created nor destroyed.
2) To perform a material balance, a process flow diagram is drawn with stream labels and unknowns assigned symbols. A basis is selected before writing balance equations.
3) For reactive systems, stoichiometric ratios from chemical equations are used in material balances to determine limiting reactants and calculate yields, selectivity, and conversion.
The document discusses various topics related to chemical reactor design including:
1. Reactor classification into homogeneous and heterogeneous types and examples like batch, continuous stirred tank, plug flow, and semi-batch reactors.
2. Factors to consider for reactor design like heat of reaction, operating temperature and pressure, and use of internal or external heating/cooling.
3. Methods for controlling temperature like adiabatic, isothermal, auto-thermal reactors.
4. Key principles of chemical equilibrium and kinetics that influence choice of process conditions.
Types of air preheaters and its advantagesPreeti Agarwal
A very basic word to word meaning is a device used to heat the air before further use is called as Air Preheater. They are also recognized as air heaters or air-heating pipe. It is designed to exchange heat energy with desuperheaters. Desuperheater is a Device which is been used to reduce the temperature of the steam in a high heat generation plants where large amount of heat energy or steam is released in the atmosphere.
OVERVIEW - FIXED BED ADSORBER DESIGN GUIDELINES
Fixed-bed adsorber design is based upon the following considerations:
• Adsorbent bed profile and media loading capacity characteristics for the specific application and adsorbent material used.
• Pressure drop characteristics across the adsorbent bed.
• Reaction kinetics.
Typically, adsorber design entails use of the following methodology:
• Adsorbent selection based upon performance and application information.
• Bed sizing based upon adsorbent loading data and service life requirements.
• Bed sizing adjustment based upon pressure drop criteria.
• Bed sizing adjustment based upon reaction kinetics criteria.
A discussion of each design consideration follows.
Knocking fundamentals (limitations and issues)Hassan Raza
It's all about Knocking in IC Engines, their limiting factors,issues,how to nullify their effect and how to control this effect and how to over come knocking inside combustion chamber.
Try to explain about the steam generator (boiler), it has three parts. Part 1 cover the types, part 2 about its parts & auxiliaries & accessories and part 3 about performance.
The document describes a double pipe heat exchanger and provides classifications of heat exchangers. A double pipe heat exchanger consists of two concentric pipes and connecting tees to transfer thermal energy between two fluids. Heat exchangers can be classified based on their heat transfer mechanism, construction type, flow arrangement, number of passes, and operating temperatures and pressures. Common types include plate, tubular, extended surface, and phase change heat exchangers.
Coal is composed primarily of carbon along with variable quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen. Ultimate analysis is also known as elemental analysis, it is the method to determine the Carbon,Hydrogen,Nitrogen,Sulphur and Oxygen content present in solid fuel.
This document describes gas sweetening processes used to remove acid gases like H2S and CO2 from natural gas. It focuses on chemical absorption processes using alkanolamine solvents like MEA, DGA, DEA, and MDEA in aqueous solutions. The general process involves absorbing acid gases from the feed gas in an absorber column, regenerating the solvent in a regenerator column, and recycling the regenerated solvent. Key unit operations discussed include the absorber, flash drum, amine/amine heat exchanger, regenerator, reboiler, and condenser. Process conditions and equipment details are provided for the typical operation of each unit.
Astm method for distillation of petroleum products at atmospheric pressureStudent
This document summarizes an experiment to determine the boiling range of kerosene using ASTM distillation. The experiment involves heating a 100mL gasoline sample in a distillation flask and measuring the temperature and volume percent distilled at intervals. A plot of the results shows the boiling range is 54-180°C. The document discusses how boiling range indicates a fuel's composition and properties, and how it affects safety, performance, and tendency to be explosive. Factors like vapor losses and condenser efficiency can impact the accuracy of the results.
Petroleum lab experiment 02 - octane number and cetane numberSafeen Yaseen Ja'far
The document describes an experiment conducted by a group of chemical engineering students to determine the octane number of gasoline samples and the cetane number of diesel fuel samples. It includes the aim of the experiment, theoretical background on octane and cetane numbers, methodology, procedures, calculations, and a discussion section with answers to questions about fuel compositions and effects of adding compounds.
This presentation discusses the Rankine cycle, which is used in 90% of power plants worldwide. It introduces William Rankine, who helped develop thermodynamics. The presentation covers the ideal Rankine cycle and modifications like reheat and regeneration cycles that improve efficiency. Reheat cycles add a second turbine, while regeneration cycles use extracted steam to preheat feedwater, improving heat transfer and efficiency. The document aims to explain these Rankine cycle variations and their advantages over the basic cycle.
In petroleum refining, the Crude Distillation Unit (CDU) (often referred to as the Atmospheric Distillation Unit) is usually the first processing equipment through which crude oil is fed. Once in the CDU, crude oil is distilled into various products, like naphtha, kerosene, and diesel, that then serve as feedstocks for all other processing units at the refinery.
The document discusses several types of chemical reactors, including recycle reactors, autocatalytic reactors, and considerations for optimizing reactor performance and operating conditions. It addresses recycle stream ratios, performance equations, temperature progression, and non-ideal flow concepts such as residence time distribution, states of aggregation, and mixing effects.
Centrifugal Compressors
SECTION ONE - ANTI-SURGE PROTECTION AND THROUGHPUT REGULATION
0 INTRODUCTION
1 SCOPE
2 MACHINE CHARACTERISTICS
2.1 Characteristics of a Single Compressor Stage
2.2 Characteristic of a Multiple Stage Having More
Than One Impeller
2.3 Use of Compressor Characteristics in Throughput
Regulation Schemes
3 MECHANISM AND EFFECTS OF SURGE
3.1 Basic Flow Instabilities
3.2 Occurrence of Surge
3.3 Intensity of Surge
3.4 Effects of Surge
3.5 Avoidance of Surge
3.6 Recovery from Surge
4 CONTROL SCHEMES INCLUDING SURGE PROTECTION
4.1 Output Control
4.2 Surge Protection
4.3 Surge Detection and Recovery
5 DYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS
5.1 Interaction
5.2 Speed of Response of Antisurge Control System
6 SYSTEM EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS
6.1 The Antisurge Control Valve
6.2 Non-return Valve
6.3 Pressure and flow measurement
6.4 Signal transmission
6.5 Controllers
7 TESTING
7.1 Determination of the Surge Line
7.2 Records
8 INLET GUIDE VANE UNITS
8.1 Application
8.2 Effect on Power Consumption of the Compressor
8.3 Effect of Gas Conditions, Properties and Contaminants
8.4 Aerodynamic Considerations
8.5 Control System Linearity
8.6 Actuator Specification
8.7 Avoidance of Surge
8.8 Features of Link Mechanisms
8.9 Limit Stops and Shear Links
APPENDICES
A LIST OF SYMBOLS AND PREFERRED UNITS
B WORKED EXAMPLE 1 COMPRESSOR WITH VARIABLE INLET PRESSURE AND VARIABLE GAS COMPOSITION
C WORKED EXAMPLE 2 A CONSTANT SPEED ~ STAGE COMPRESSOR WITH INTER-COOLING
D WORKED EXAMPLE 3 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF THE ANTISURGE PROTECTION SYSTEM FOR A SERVICE AIR COMPRESSOR RUNNING AT CONSTANT SPEED
E EXAMPLE OF INLET GUIDE VANE REGULATION
FIGURES
2.1 TYPICAL COMPRESSOR STAGE CHARACTERISTIC PLOTTED WITH FLOW AT DISCHARGE CONDITIONS
2.2 TYPICAL COMPRESSOR STAGE CHARACTERISTIC PLOTTED WITH FLOW AT INLET CONDITIONS
2.3 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPRESSOR STAGE AT VARYING SPEEDS
2.4 SYSTEM WORKING POINT DEFINED BY INTERSECTION OF PROCESS AND COMPRESSOR CHARACTERISTICS
2.5 DISCHARGE THROTTLE REGULATION
2.6 BYPASS REGULATION
2.7 INLET THROTTLE REGULATION
2.8 INLET GUIDE VANE REGULATION
2.9 VARIABLE SPEED REGULATION
3.1 GAS PULSATION LEVELS FOR A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
3.2 REPRESENTATION OF CYCLIC FLOW DURING SURGE OF LONG PERIOD
3.3 TYPICAL WAVEFORM OF DISCHARGE PRESSURE DURING SURGE
3.4 MULTIPLE SURGE LINE FOR A MULTISTAGE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
3.5 TYPICAL MULTIPLE SURGE LINES FOR SINGLE STAGE AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSOR
4.1 GENERAL SCHEMATIC FOR COMPRESSORS OPERATING IN PARALLEL TO FEED MULTIPLE USER PLANTS
4.2 ILLUSTRATION OF SAFETY MARGIN BETWEEN SURGE POINT AND SURGE PROTECTION POINT AT WHICH ANTISURGE SYSTEM IS ACTIVATED
4.3 ANTISURGE SYSTEM FOR COMPRESSOR WITH FLAT PERFO ..........
Gas - Liquid Reactors
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 Preliminary Equipment Selection
4.2 Equipment for Low Viscosity Liquids
4.3 Equipment for High Viscosity Liquids
5 REACTOR DESIGN
6 ESSENTIAL THEORY
6.1 Rate and Yield Determining Steps
6.2 Chemical and Physical Rates
6.3 Modification for Exothermic and Complex Reactions
6.4 Preliminary Selection of Reactor Type
7 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF REGIME
7.1 Direct Measurement of Reaction Kinetics
7.2 Laboratory Gas-Liquid Reactor Experiments
8 EQUILIBRIUM AND DIFFUSIVITY DATA SOURCES
9 OVERALL EFFECTS
9.1 Liquid Flow Patterns
9.2 Scale of Mixing
9.3 Gas Flow Pattern : Mean Driving Force for Mass Transfer
9.4 Gas-Liquid Reactor Modeling
9.5 Heat Transfer
9.6 Materials of Construction
9.7 Foaming
10 FINAL CHOICE OF REACTOR TYPE
11 SCALE-UP AND SPECIFICATION OF GAS-LIQUID
REACTORS
11.1 Bubble Columns
11.2 Packed Columns
11.3 Trickle Beds
11.4 Plate or Tray Columns
11.5 Spray Columns
11.6 Wiped Film
11.7 Spinning Film Reactors
11.8 Stirred Vessels
11.9 Plunging Jet
11.10 Surface Aerator
11.11 Static Mixers
11.12 Ejectors, Venturis and Orifice Plates
11.13 3-Phase Fluidized Bed
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
TABLES
1 REGIMES OF GAS-LIQUID MASS TRANSFER WITH ISOTHERMAL CHEMICAL REACTION
2 REGIMES OF GAS-LIQUID MASS TRANSFER IGNORING LARGE EXOTHERMS OR OTHER COMPLICATIONS
3 COMPARATIVE MASS TRANSFER PERFORMANCE OF CONTACTING DEVICES
4 COMPARATIVE MASS TRANSFER DATA
5 CHOICE OF GAS-LIQUID REACTOR TYPE
FIGURES
1 RATE AND YIELD DETERMINING STEPS
2 ENHANCEMENT FACTOR vs HATTA NUMBER
3 ENHANCEMENT FACTOR vs HATTA NUMBER : EFFECT OF THERMAL & OTHER FACTORS
4 REACTORS FOR LIQUID-PHASE KINETICS
MEASUREMENT
5 EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE OPERATING
REGIME
6 EXPERIMENTS DETERMINE THE OPERATING REGIME WHERE A SOLID CATALYST IS INVOLVED
7 THE MIXED ZONES IN LOOPS' MODEL FOR STIRRED REACTORS
Solid Catalyzed Gas Phase Reactor Selection
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 ADIABATIC REACTORS
4.1 Single Bed Reactors
4.2 Divided Bed Reactors
4.3 Moving Bed Reactors
4.4 Radial Flow Reactors
5 NON ADIABATIC REACTORS
5.1 Tubular Reactor with External Heating/Cooling
5.2 Tube Cooled Reactors
5.3 Autothermal Reactors
5.4 Hot/Cold Shot Reactors
5.5 Divided Bed Reactors with Intercooling
5.6 Radial Flow Reactors with Intercooling
5.7 Fluid Bed Reactors
6 NOTES ON USING REACTOR SELECTION
GUIDE (TABLE 1)
TABLE
1 REACTOR SELECTION GUIDE
FIGURES
1 TUBULAR REACTOR: EXAMPLE OF CATALYST IN ANNULAR TUBES COOLED BY STEAM RAISING
2 AUTOTHERMAL REACTOR: CATALYST BED COOLED BY INFLOWING GAS IN TUBES
3 COLD SHOT CONVERTER: FIXED ADIABATIC BEDS WITH INTERBED QUENCH GAS MIXING
Reactor and Catalyst Design
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 CATALYST DESIGN
4.1 Equivalent Pellet Diameter
4.2 Voidage
4.3 Pellet Density
5 REACTOR DESIGN
6 CATALYST SUPPORT
6.1 Choice of Support
TABLES
1 CATALYST SUPPORT SHAPES
2 SECONDARY REFORMER SPREADSHEET
FIGURES
1 GRAPH OF EFFECTIVENESS v THIELE MODULUS
2 VARIATION OF COSTS WITH CATALYST SIZE
3 VARIATION OF COSTS WITH CATALYST BED VOIDAGE
4 VARIATION OF COSTS WITH VESSEL DIAMETER
Fixed Bed Reactor Scale-up Checklist
The purpose of this checklist is to identify the stages and potential problems associated with the scale up of fixed bed reactors from the drawing board to the full scale plant, and to determine how they should be checked.
The checking can be done using various methods. These are:
• Literature data.
• Lab testing.
• Calculation.
• Modeling.
• Semi-tech testing.
• Piloting or Sidestream testing.
Identifying the stages that need to be addressed for a particular catalyst/reactor development will help in estimating the time needed for the development of the reactor
Reactor Modeling Tools - An Overview
CONTENTS
1 SCOPE
2 OPTIONS IN REACTOR MODELING
2.1 General
2.2 Level of Complexity of Model
2.3 Mode of Operation of Model
2.4 Deterministic versus Empirical Modeling
2.5 Platforms for Model
2.6 Steady State versus Dynamic Model
2.7 Dimensions Modeled in Reactor
2.8 Scale of Modeling for Multiphase Reactors
2.9 Writing and Using the Model
APPENDICES
A CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT REACTOR MODELS
B NEEDS FOR MODELING AT DIFFERENT SCALES IN
HETEROGENEOUS CATALYTIC REACTORS
C REACTOR MODELS EMPLOYED WITHIN GBHE
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS ENGINEERING GUIDE
How to use the GBHE Reactor Technology Guides
0 INTRODUCTION / PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND
5 THE DECISION TREE
6 GBHE REACTION ENGINEERING
7 GENERAL ASPECTS OF REACTOR TECHNOLOGY
7.1 Criteria of Reactor Performance
7.2 Factors of Economic Importance
7.3 Physicochemical Mechanisms
8 GENERAL GUIDE TO SELECTION OF REACTOR TYPE AND OPERATION
8.1 Choice of Reactor Type
8.2 Reaction Mechanism and Kinetics
8.3 Thermodynamics
8.4 Other Factors
9 GENERAL REFERENCES AND SOURCES OF
INFORMATION
APPENDICES
A RELATIONSHIP BEWTEEN DEFINED TERMS
FIGURES
1 DECISION TREE
2 RELATIVE YIELDS OF B FOR BATCH (OR PLUG FLOW) AND CST REACTORS
3 REACTOR SURVEY FORM
Chemical Process Conception
0 INTRODUCTION / PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 PRODUCT STRATEGY
4.1 General
4.2 Market for the Product
4.3 Production Costs
4.4 Process Technology
5 PRELIMINARY PROCESS INFORMATION
6 REACTION AND REACTOR
6.1 Batch vs Continuous
6.2 Multiple Reactors
7 RECYCLE
7.1 Recycle Structure
7.2 Classification of Chemicals
7.3 Effect of Recycle
7.4 Preliminary Estimation of Conversion
8 REACTOR TYPE AND PERFORMANCE
8.1 Conversion-Yield Effects
8.2 Heat Effects
8.3 Equilibrium Effects
8.4 Kinetic Effects
8.5 More Help with Reactor Design
9 SEPARATION SYSTEM
10 REVIEW
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES
11.1 Preliminary Flowsheeting
11.2 Physical Properties
11.3 Reactors
11.4 Separation
11.5 Costing
APPENDICES
A BASIC REACTOR SYSTEM DESIGN
B DISCUSSION BETWEEN A CHEMIST AND A
CHEMICAL ENGINEER
C BASIC SEPARATION STRATEGY
TABLES
1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
FIGURES
1 FLOWCHART OF THE ITERATIVE PROCEDURE REQUIRED IN PROCESS AND PRODUCT SELECTION AND DEVELOPMENT
Solid Catalyzed Reactions
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GENERAL BACKGROUND
4.1 General Considerations
5 SOLID CATALYZED GAS REACTIONS
5.1 Reaction Kinetics
5.2 Tests for Transport Limitations
5.3 Building a Reaction Kinetic Equation
6 INTRAPARTICLE
6.1 Types of Pore System
6.2 The Catalyst Effectiveness Factor
6.3 The Measurement of Effective Diffusivity
7 ENHANCEMENT OF INTRAPARTICLE
8 NOMENCLATURE
8.1 Dimensionless Parameters
8.2 Greek Letters
8.3 Subscripts
9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
9.1 Further Reading
APPENDICES
A LANGMUIR - HINSHELWOOD KINETICS
FIGURES
1 EFFECTIVE RATE CONSTANT
2 ITERATIVE APPROACH TO REACTOR MODEL
DEVELOPMENT
3 COMMON LABORATORY MICROREACTORS (FLOW TYPE)
4 THE BERTY REACTOR
5 STEPS IN BUILDING A REACTION RATE EQUATION
6 A CENTRAL-COMPOSITE DESIGN FOR TWO FACTORS
7 FIRST ORDER ISOTHERMAL IRREVERSIBLE
REACTION WITHIN A CATALYST SPHERE
8 INTEGRAL YIELD vs CONVERSION SHOWING EFFECT OF PELLET DIFFUSION
9 PREDICTED AND EXPERIMENTAL EFFECTIVENESS FACTORS
10 STRUCTURAL PERMEABILITY vs PRESSURE PARAMETER Z FOR BI-MODAL SUPPORTS
11 EFFECTIVENESS FACTOR vs THIELE MODULUS AND INTRAPARTICLE PECLET NUMBER
12 RELATIVE INCREASE IN CATALYST PERFORMANCE
This document provides guidance on residence time distribution (RTD) data for process engineers. It discusses:
1) How RTD data measures mixing in reactors and can be used to model reactor performance.
2) Examples of how RTD data can model reactors for first and second order reactions, and the differences between micro and macromixing models.
3) Techniques for measuring RTD using radioactive tracers and modeling results based on the measured curves.
Tube Wall Temperature Measurement On Steam Reformers - Best PracticesGerard B. Hawkins
GBH Enterprises provides guidance on best practices for measuring tube wall temperatures in steam reformers using optical pyrometers. It is important to measure temperatures accurately to prevent overheating tubes while maximizing plant efficiency. GBH recommends taking multiple temperature and background readings per tube using handheld pyrometers and an emissivity correction factor. Safety precautions like protective equipment are also advised. Detailed procedures are outlined for top-fired, side-fired and terrace wall furnace configurations.
Process Synthesis
INTRODUCTION
1 A SUGGESTED GENERAL APPROACH
2 EXAMPLES OF PROCESS SELECTION
2.1 Harvesting and Thickening of Single Cell Protein
2.2 Dewatering of a Specialty Latex
3 REFERENCES
TABLES
1 THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT RANGE OF PH FOR “PROTEIN” ORGANISM FLOCCULATION
2 THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VARYING EXTENTS OF CELL BREAKAGES
3 PREDICTED AND OBSERVED FILTER CAKE SOLIDS CONTENTS FOR THE VARIOUS LATICES AFTER COAGULATION
FIGURES
1 THE “PROTEIN” BACTERIAL HARVESTING SYSTEM
2 PROCESS FOR MANUFACTURE OF CALCIUM CARBONATE FILTERS
3 H-ACID ISOLATION
4 A SUGGESTED APPROACH TO DETERMINING FEASIBLE PROCESS OPTIONS, AND OPERATING CONDITIONS FOR SEPARATION OF FINE SOLIDS FROM SUSPENSION
5 MODULI VERSUS SOLIDS CONTENT FORTYPICAL FORWARD FLOCCULATED “PROTEIN” SUSPENSIONS
6 DECISION TREE FOR SELECTION OF AS1 HARVESTING CONDITIONS WHEN PRINCIPAL CONSTRAINT CONCERNS THE DEGREE OF THICKENING REQUIRED IN THE CONCENTRATE
7 DECISION TREE FOR SELECTION OF AS1 HARVESTING CONDITIONS WHEN PRINCIPAL CONSTRAINT CONCERNS THE USE OF FLOTATION AS A UNIT OPERATION FOR THICKENING
8 DECISION TREE FOR SELECTION OF AS1 HARVESTING CONDITIONS WHEN PRINCIPAL CONSTRAINT CONCERNS THE QUALITY OF THE RECYCLED LIQUOR
9 MODULUS SOLIDS CONTENT CURVES FOR THEVARIOUS COAGULATED LATICES
Reciprocating Compressors - Protection against Crank Case ExplosionsGerard B. Hawkins
Reciprocating Compressors - Protection against Crank Case Explosions
1 SCOPE
2 OIL MIST/AIR MIXTURE EXPLOSIONS
3 PREVENTION AND PROTECTION
3.1 Design
3.2 Maintenance and Operation
FIGURES
1 FLAMMABILITY LIMITS AND SPONTANEOUS IGNITION REGION FOR MIXTURES OF LUBRICATING OIL VAPOR IN AIR.
The Preliminary Choice of Fan or Compressor
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 METHOD FOR PRELIMINARY SELECTION
OF COMPRESSOR
5 PROCESS DATA SHEET
5.1 Essential Data for the Completion of a
Process Data Sheet
5.2 Gas Properties
5.3 Discharge Requirements
6 PRELIMINARY CHOICE OF FAN AND
COMPRESSOR TYPE
6.1 Essential Data for Preliminary Selection
7 FAN AND COMPRESSOR APPLICATIONS
7.1 Fans
7.2 Centrifugal Compressors
7.3 Axial Compressors
7.4 Reciprocating Compressors
7.5 Screw Compressors
7.6 Positive Displacement Blowers
7.7 Sliding Vane Compressors
7.8 Liquid Ring Compressors
8 PROVISION OF INSTALLED SPARES
9 PRELIMINARY ESTIMATE OF COSTS
Integration of Special Purpose Centrifugal Fans into a ProcessGerard B. Hawkins
Integration of Special Purpose Centrifugal Fans into a Process
0 INTRODUCTION
1 SCOPE
2 NOTATION
3 PRELIMINARY CHOICE OF NUMBER OF FANS
3.1 Volume Flow Q o
3.2 Definitions
3.3 Estimate of Equivalent Pressure Rise Δ P e
3.4 Choice of Fan Type
3.5 Choice of Control Method
4 GAS DENSITY CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 Calculation of Inlet Pressure
4.2 Calculation of Gas Density
4.3 Atmospheric Air Conditions
5 CAPACITY AND PRESSURE RISE RATING
5.1 Calculation of Fan Capacity
5.2 Calculation of Fan Pressure Rise
5.3 Multiple Duty Points
5.4 Stability
5.5 Parallel Operation
6 GUIDE TO FAN SELECTION
6.1 Effect of Gas Contaminants
6.2 Selection of Blade Type
6.3 Selection of Rotational Speed
6.4 Wind milling and Slowroll
6.5 Estimate of Fan External Dimensions
7 POWER RATING
7.1 Estimate of Fan Efficiency
7.2 Calculation of Absorbed Power
7.3 Calculation of Driver Power Rating
7.4 Motor Power Ratings
7.5 Starting Conditions for Electric Motors
8 CASING PRESSURE RATING
8.1 Calculation of Maximum Inlet Pressure ΔP i max
8.2 Calculation of Maximum Pressure Rise Δ P s max
8.3 Calculation of Casing Test Pressure
8.4 Rating for Explosion
9 NOISE RATING
9.1 Estimate of Fan Sound Power Rating LR
9.2 Acceptable Sound Power Level LW
9.3 Acceptable Sound Pressure Level L p
9.4 Assessment of Silencing Requirements
APPENDICES
A RELIABILITY CLASSIFICATION
B FAN LAWS
FIGURES
3.4 GUIDE TO FAN TYPE
4.5 VARIATION OF AIR DENSITY WITH TEMPERATURE AND ALTITUDE
6.3.1 DUTY BOUNDARY FOR SINGLE - INLET IMPELLERS
6.3.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HEAD COEFFICIENT AND SPECIFIC SIZE
6.3.6 ROTATIONAL SPEEDS FOR FAN IMPELLERS WITH BACK SWEPT VANES
6.3.7 ROTATIONAL SPEED FOR FAN IMPELLERS WITH RADIAL VANES
6.3.8 RELATIONSHIP OF IMPELLER TIP SPEED TO SHAPE
6.3.9 BOUNDARY DEFINING ARDUOUS DUTY
7.1 NOMOGRAPH FOR ESTIMATING THE EFFICIENCY OF A SINGLE STAGE FAN
7.2 GRAPH: COEFFICIENT OF COMPRESSIBILITY vs PRESSURE RATIO
7.5 GRAPH: MOMENT OF INERTIA OF FAN AND MOTOR (wR2) vs kW
Naphtha Steam Reforming Catalyst Reduction by NH3 CrackingGerard B. Hawkins
Procedure for Naphtha Steam Reforming Catalyst Reduction by NH3 Cracking
Scope
This procedure applies to the in situ reduction of VULCAN Series steam reforming catalysts using ammonia cracking to form hydrogen over the catalyst in the steam reformer. This procedure covers plants with a dry gas circulation loop for reduction. The procedure is likely to be applied to plants using only heavier feeds (e.g.: LPG and/or naphtha) and some combination of VULCAN Series catalysts.
Introduction
A small number of steam reforming plants do not have an available source of the commonly used reducing media (e.g.: hydrogen, hydrogen-rich off-gas, natural gas). These plants will usually operate on LPG and/or naphtha feed only where cracking of this hydrocarbon is not usually advised for reduction of the steam reforming catalyst. In such circumstances, the plant may be designed to use the installed steam reforming catalyst to crack ammonia to provide hydrogen for the reformer catalyst reduction....
Protection Systems for Machines: an Engineering GuideGerard B. Hawkins
Protection Systems for Machines: an Engineering Guide
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 CRITICAL MACHINE SYSTEMS
5 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT MACHINES
5.1 Protection Against Over Pressure
5.2 Protection Against High or Low Temperature
5.3 Displacement Measuring Devices
5.4 Vibration Detection Devices
5.5 Pulsation Dampers
5.6 Knock-out Pots
5.7 Special Considerations for Dry Vacuum Pumps
6 DYNAMIC MACHINES
6.1 Dynamic Pumps
6.2 Sealless Pumps
6.3 Dynamic Compressors and Blowers
6.4 Gas Turbines/Expanders and Steam Turbines
7 CENTRIFUGES
8 LARGE ELECTRIC MOTORS AND ALTERNATORS
9 GEARBOXES
10 OIL LUBRICATED PLAIN BEARINGS AND LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEMS
11 SEALS AND SEALANT SYSTEMS
12 CONDITION MONITORING
13 TRIP AND ALARM SCHEDULES FOR ALL MACHINE
SYSTEMS
14 TESTING OF PROTECTION SYSTEMS FOR MACHINES
14.1 All Machines
14.2 Critical Machines
15 MACHINES SAFETY DOCUMENTS
APPENDICES
A EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES DIRECTIVES
B REFERENCE DOCUMENTS FOR POSITIVE
DISPLACEMENT MACHINES
C REFERENCE DOCUMENTS FOR DYNAMIC MACHINES
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS ENGINEERING GUIDE
ORIFICE RESTRICTOR: DESIGN GUIDELINES
SPECIFICATION OF FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION OF FLUID
INLET FLUID PHASE(S)
FLOWRATE
UPSTREAM PRESSURE
DOWNSTREAM PRESSURE
OPERATING TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE EXTREMES: MINIMUM
TEMPERATURE EXTREMES: MAXIMUM
UPSTREAM DENSITY
UPSTREAM COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR.
IS RESTRICTOR PART OF SAFETY SYSTEM?
LINE SIZE
LINE REFERENCE
CALCULATED ORIFICE DIAMETER
Physical properties and thermochemistry for reactor technologyGerard B. Hawkins
Physical Properties and Thermochemistry for Reactor Technology
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
4.1 Form of Equations
4.2 The Physical Property System: “The VAULT”
4.3 Physical Property Programs
4.4 Physical Property Estimation
4.5 Sources of Expertise
5 INTERFACING COMPUTER PROGRAMS TO THE
GBHE VAULT PHYSICAL PROPERTIES PACKAGE
5.1 Preparation of the Physical Property Data
6 THERMOCHEMISTRY
6.1 Hess's Law
6.2 Standard States
6.3 Heats of Formation
6.4 Determination of Heats of Reaction
7 CALCULATION OF HEATS OF REACTION
7.1 Analogous Reactions
7.2 Heat of Formation Data Compilations
7.3 Estimation of Standard Heats of Formation
7.4 Heats of Neutralization
7.5 Temperature Effect on Heat of Reaction
8 HEATS OF SOLUTION, DILUTION AND MIXING
8.1 Calculation of Heats of Solution / Dilution from
Literature Data
8.2 Estimation of Heats of Solution and Mixing
8.3 Integral and Differential Heats
9 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF
THERMOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS
9.1 Isoperibol Calorimetry for Heats of Reaction and Solution
9.2 Heat Flow Calorimetry
9.3 Adiabatic Calorimeter
9.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry
10 COMPUTER CALCULATION OF ENTHALPY OR
TEMPERATURE
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Mixing of Solid-Liquid Systems
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
5 AGITATED VESSELS
5.1 Suspension of Heavier-than-Liquid Solids
5.1.1 Dispersion
5.1.2 Agitator Speed Correlation
5.2 Floating Solids
5.3 Mass Transfer
6 JET MIXING FOR SOLID LIQUID AGITATION
6.1 Flat Bottomed Vessel
6.2 Changes in the Shape of the Vessel Base
7 NOMENCLATURE
8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A WORKED EXAMPLE
TABLES
1 VALUES OF Po AND ZWIETERING CONSTANT "S"
FOR USE IN EQUATION 1
FIGURES
1 RECOMMENDED CONFIGURATION
2 RECOMMENDED CONFIGURATION FOR DRAW-DOWN OF FLOATING SOLIDS IN AGITATED VESSEL
3 ALTERNATIVE RECOMMENDED CONFIGURATION
FOR DRAW-DOWN OF FLOATING SOLIDS IN FOR
AGITATED VESSEL
4 JET MIXING FOR SOLIDS SUSPENSION
5 ESTIMATION OF S FROM KNOWN DATA
Filtration
0 INTRODUCTION
1 The Theory Underlying Filtration Processes
1.1 The Mechanism of Simple Filtration Systems
1.1.2 Cake Filtration
1.1.3 Complete Blocking
1.1.4 Standard Blocking
1.1.5 Intermediate Blocking
1.2 Cake Filtration – Models and Mechanisms
1.2.1 Classical Theory for the Permeability of Porous Cakes and Beds
1.2.2 The Rate of Filtration through a Compressible Cake – The Standard Filtration Equation
1.2.3 The Compression or Consolidation of Filter Cakes – Ultimate degree of dewatering
1.2.4 The Rate of Consolidation
1.2.5 Useful Semi-Empirical Relations for Constant Pressure and Constant Rate Cake Filtration
1.2.6 Constant Pressure Filtration
1.2.7 Constant Rate Filtration
1.2.8 Multiphase Theory of Filtration
1.3 Crossflow Filtration
2 The Range and Selection of Filtration Equipment Technology
2.1 Scale
2.2 Solids Recovery, Liquids Clarification or Feed stream Concentration
2.3 Rate of Sedimentation
2.4 Rate of Cake Formation and Drainage
2.5 Batch vs Continuous Operation
2.6 Solids Loading
2.7 Further Processing
2.8 Aseptic or “Hygienic” Operation
2.9 Miscellaneous
2.10 Shear versus Compressional Deformation
2.11 Pressure versus Vacuum
3 Suspension Conditioning Prior to Filtration
3.1 Simple Filtration Aids
3.2 Mechanical Treatments
4 Post-Filtration Treatments and Further Downstream Processing
4.1 Washing
4.1.1 Air-Blowing
4.1.2 Drying
5 Testing and Characterization of Suspensions
5.1 Introduction – Suspension
5.2 Properties relevant to Filtration Performance
5.2.1 Pre-Filtration Properties of Suspension
5.2.2 Properties of Filter Cake
5.2.3 Laboratory Scale Filtration Rigs
5.3 Means of Monitoring Flocculant Dosage
5.4 Filter Cake Testing
5.4.1 Strength Testing (See also piston press described earlier)
5.4.2 Cake Permeability or Resistance
5.4.3 Rate of Cake Formation
6 Examples of the Application of the Forgoing Principles
6.1 Dewatering of Calcium Carbonate Slurries
6.2 Dewatering of Organic Products – Procion Dyestuffs
6.3 Filtration of Biological Systems – Harvesting a Filamentous Organism
References
Tables
Figures
Pipeline Design for Isothermal, Laminar Flow of Non-Newtonian FluidsGerard B. Hawkins
Pipeline Design for Isothermal, Laminar Flow of Non-Newtonian Fluids
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF PURELY VISCOUS
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
4.1 Experimental Characterization
4.2 Rheological Models
5 PRESSURE DROP-FLOW RATE RELATIONSHIPS
BASED DIRECTLY ON EXPERIMENTAL DATA
5.1 Use of Shear Stress – Shear Rate Data
5.2 Tubular Viscometer Data
6 PRESSURE DROP – FLOW RATE RELATIONSHIPS BASED ON RHEOLOGICAL MODELS
7 LOSSES IN PIPE FITTINGS
7.1 Entrances Losses
7.2 Expansion Effects
7.3 Contraction Losses
7.4 Valves
7.5 Bends
8 EFFECT OF WALL SLIP
9 VELOCITY PROFILES
9.1 Velocity Profile from Experimental Flow-Curve
9.2 Velocity Profile from Rheological Model
9.3 Residence Time Distribution
10 CHECKS ON THE VALIDITY OF THE
DESIGN PROCEDURES
10.1 Rheological Behavior
10.2 Validity of Experimental Data
10.2 Check on Laminar Flow
11 NOMENCLATURE
12 REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 FLOW CURVES FOR PURELY VISCOUS FLUIDS
2 PLOTS OF D∆P/4L VERSUS 32Q/ɳD3 FOR PURELY VISCOUS FLUIDS
3 LOG-LOG PLOT OF t VERSUS ý
4 FLOW CURVE FOR A BINGHAM PLASTIC
5 LOG-LOG PLOT FOR A GENERALIZED BINGHAM
PLASTIC
6 CORRELATION OF ENTRANCE LOSS
7 CORRELATION OF EXPANSION LOSS
8 EFFECT OF “WALL SLIP” ON VELOCITY PROFILE
9 D∆P/4L VERSUS Q/ɳR3 WITH WALL SLIP
10 EVALUATION OFUs WITH Ʈw
11 VARIATION OF Us WITH Ʈw
12 PLOT OF D∆P/4L VERSUS 8 (ū- Us)/D FOR
CONDITIONS OF WALL SLIP
13 CUMULATIVE RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION
TO POWER LAW FLUIDS
14 EFFECTS OF TUBE LENGTH AND DIAMETER ON
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN D∆P/4L AND 32Q/ɳD3
Gas Mixing
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GAS MIXING:
PLUG FLOW
5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GAS MIXING:
BACKMIXED INITIAL ZONE
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Reactor Modeling Tools – Multiple Regressions
CONTENTS
0 INTRODUCTION
1 SCOPE
2 THEORY
3 EXCEL 2007: MULTIPLE REGRESSIONS
3.1 Overview
3.2 Multiple Regression Using the Data Analysis ADD-IN
3.3 Interpret Regression Statistics Table
3.4 Interpret ANOVA Table
3.5 Interpret Regression Coefficients Table
3.6 Confidence Intervals for Slope Coefficients
3.7 Test Hypothesis of Zero Slope Coefficients ("Test of Statistical Significance")
3.8 Test Hypothesis on a Regression Parameter
3.8.1 Using the p-value approach
3.8.2 Using the critical value approach
3.9 Overall Test of Significance of the Regression Parameters
3.10 Predicted Value of Y Given Regressors
3.11 Excel Limitations
4 SPECIAL FEATURES REQUIRING MORE SOPHISTICATED TECHNIQUES
5 USER INFORMATION SUPPLIED
A SUBROUTINE
B DATA
C RESULTS
6 EXAMPLE
Heating and Cooling of Batch Processes
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
3.1 units
4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
5 DEVELOPMENT OF THE METHOD
5.1 Assumptions
5.2 Basic Equations
6 APPLICATION OF THE METHOD
6.1 Determining the Behavior of an Existing System
6.2 Specifying the Heat Transfer Duty for a New System
APPENDICES
A DERIVATION OF THE EQUATIONS
B WORKED EXAMPLES
FIGURES
1 CASES CONSIDERED
Turbulent Heat Transfer to Non Newtonian Fluids in Circular TubesGerard B. Hawkins
Turbulent Heat Transfer to Non Newtonian Fluids in Circular Tubes
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 THE INTEGRATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION
5 THE EDDY VISCOSITY FOR NON-NEWTONIAN AND DRAG REDUCING FLUIDS
6 THE CALCULATION OF HEAT TRANSFER
COEFFICIENTS FOR NON-NEWTONIAN AND DRAG
REDUCING FLUIDS IN TURBULENT PIPE FLOW
6.1 General
6.2 Drag Reducing Fibre Suspensions
6.3 Transition Delay
7 NOMENCLATURE
8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Mixing of Immiscible Liquids
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 EQUIPMENT
4.1 Agitated Tanks
4.2 Flow Mixers
4.3 'High Shear' Mixers
5 SYSTEM PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
5.1 Density
5.2 Viscosity
5.3 Interfacial Tension
6 STIRRED VESSELS
6.1 Design for Complete Dispersion
6.2 Prediction of Phase Inversion
6.3 Design for Mass Transfer
6.4 Design for Dispersed Phase Mixing
6.5 Hold-Up in Continuous Vessels
7 FLOW MIXERS
7.1 Design for Turbulent Conditions
7.2 Design for Laminar Conditions
TABLES
1 REYNOLDS NUMBER RANGES
FIGURES
1 STANDARD TANK CONFIGURATION
2 EXPERIMENTAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MASS
TRANSFER COEFFICIENT AND POWER DENSITY
Data Sources For Calculating Chemical Reaction EquilibriaGerard B. Hawkins
Data Sources For Calculating Chemical Reaction Equilibria
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND TO THEORY
5 BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Selective Oxidation of n-Butane to Maleic Anhydride in a Catalyst Packed ...Gerard B. Hawkins
The Selective Oxidation of n-Butane to Maleic Anhydride in a Catalyst Packed Tubular Reactor
CONTENTS
0 INTRODUCTION
1 n-BUTANE OXIDATION
2 REACTION KINETICS
3 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PARAMETERS
4 NON-ISOTHERMAL, NON-ADIABATIC REACTOR MODELING
5 USE OF THE REACTOR MODEL IN OPERABILITY AND DESIGN STUDIES
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
7 NOMENCLATURE
The Design and Layout of Vertical Thermosyphon ReboilersGerard B. Hawkins
The Design and Layout of Vertical Thermosyphon Reboilers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 THE DESIGN PROBLEM
5 COMPUTER PROGRAMS
6 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
6.1 Heating Medium Temperature
6.2 Fouling Resistance
7 DESIGN PARAMETERS
7.1 Overall Arrangement and Specifications
7.2 Geometry Elements
8 ANALYSIS OF COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE
PROGRAM RESULTS
8.1 Main Results
8.2 Supplementary Results
8.3 Error Analysis
8.4 Adjustments to Design
9 OPERATING RANGE
10 CONTROL
10.1 Control of Condensing Heating Medium Pressure
10.2 Control of The Condensate Level
10.3 Control of Sensible Fluid Flow Rate
11 LAYOUT
11.1 Factors Influencing Design
11.2 A Standard Layout
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Integration of Reciprocating Metering Pumps Into A ProcessGerard B. Hawkins
Integration of Reciprocating Metering Pumps into a Process
Engineering Design Guide
1 SCOPE
2 PRELIMINARY CHOICE OF PUMP
SECTION A - TYPE/FLOW/PRESSURE/SPEED RATING
Al Pumping Pressure
A2 Pump Flowrate and Capacity
A3 Guide to Pump Speed & Type
A4 Metering Criteria
A5 Pressure Pulsation
A6 Over Delivery
SECTION B - INLET CONDITIONS
B1 Calculation of Basic NPSH
B2 Correction for Frictional Head
B3 Correction for Acceleration Head
B4 Calculation of Available NPSH
B5 Corrections to NPSH for Fluid Properties
B6 Estimation of NPSH Required
B7 Priming
SECTION C - POWER RATING
C1 Pump Efficiency
C2 Calculation of Absorbed Power
C3 Determination of Driver Power Rating
SECTION D - CASING PRESSURE RATING
Dl Calculation of Maximum Discharge Pressure
D2 Discharge Pressure Relief Rating
D3 Calculation of Pump Head Outlet Losses
D4 Casing Hydrostatic Test Pressure
APPENDICES
A RELIABILITY CLASSIFICATION
FIGURES
A3.1 ESTIMATE OF CRANK SPEED
A3.3 SELECTION OF PUMPING HEAD TYPE
B5.1 ESTIMATE OF VISCOSITY OF FINE SUSPENSIONS
B6 ESTIMATE OF NPSH REQUIRED
C1.1 GRAPH - VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY VS MEAN DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
Gas-Solid-Liquid Mixing Systems
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
5 THREE-PHASE MASS TRANSFER WITH CHEMICAL REACTION
6 STIRRED VESSEL DESIGN
6.1 Agitator Design
6.2 Design for Solids Suspension
6.3 Vessel Design
6.4 Gas-Liquid Mass Transfer Coefficient and Surface Area
7 THREE-PHASE FLUIDIZED BEDS
7.1 Gas and Liquid Hold-Up
7.2 Calculation Procedure
7.3 Bubble Size
7.4 Mass Transfer
7.5 Heat Transfer
7.6 Elutriation
8 SLURRY REACTORS
8.1 Gas Rate
8.2 Mass Transfer
9 NOMENCLATURE
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Overflows and Gravity Drainage Systems
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 OUTLINE OF THE PROBLEM
5 DESIGNING FOR FLOODED FLOW
6 DESIGNING NON-FLOODED PIPELINES
6.1 Vertical Pipework
6.2 From the Side of a Vessel
6.3 Established (uniform) Flow in Near-horizontal Pipes
6.4 Non-uniform Flow
7 NON-FLOODED FLOW IN COMPLEX SYSTEMS
8 ENTRAINING FLOW
9 SIMPLE TANK OVERFLOWS
9.1 Venting of the Tank
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
11 NOMENCLATURE
TABLE
1 GEOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS OF PART-FULL PIPES
FIGURES
1 TYPICAL SEQUENCE OF SURGING FLOW
2 DESIGNING FOR FLOODED FLOW
3 CAPACITY OF SLOPING PIPELINES
4 OVERFLOW FROM SIDE OF VESSEL
5 METHODS OF AVOIDING LARGE CIRCULAR SIDE
OVERFLOWS
6 CAPACITY OF A GENTLY SLOPING PIPE AS A FUNCTION OF LIQUID DEPTH
7 COMPLEX PIPE SYSTEMS
8 REMOVAL OF ENTRAINED GASES
H - Acid Caustic Fusion Stage
CONTENTS
0 INTRODUCTION
1 DESIGN INFORMATION
1.1 Reactor Type
1.2 Temperature Range
1.3 Pressure Range
1.4 Chemical System
2 BACKGROUND
3 KINETICS AND MECHANISM
4 MAXIMUM YIELD AND IMPLICATIONS FOR REACTOR DESIGN
5 USE OF DESIGN MODEL FOR START-UP AND MANUFACTURING MONITORING
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
FIGURES
1 FUSION MODEL OUTLINE MECHANISM AND KINETIC SCHEME
2 TEST RUN OPTIMIZATION OF HEATING TIME 3600 kg/h STEAM
Laminar Heat Transfer to Non Newtonian Fluids in Circular TubesGerard B. Hawkins
Laminar Heat Transfer to Non Newtonian Fluids in Circular Tubes
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 APPLICABILITY AND LIMITATIONS
4.1 Applicability
4.2 Limitations
5 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
6 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
7 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
8 USE OF “The VAULT”
8.1 Limitations of “The VAULT”
9 NOMENCLATURE
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Batch Distillation
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND TO THE DESIGN
4.1 General
4.2 Choice of batch/continuous operation
4.3 Boiling point curve and cut policy
4.4 Method of design
4.5 Scope of calculations required for design
5 SIMPLE BATCH DISTILLATION
6 FRACTIONAL BATCH DISTILLATION
6.1 General
6.2 Approximate methods
6.3 Rigorous design - use of a computer model
6.4 Other factors influencing the design
6.4.1 Occupation
6.4.2 Choice of Batch Rectification or Stripping
6.4.3 Batch size
6.4.4 Initial estimate of cut policy
6.4.5 Liquid Holdup
6.4.6 Total reflux operation and heating-up time
6.4.7 Column operating pressure
6.5 Optimum Design of the Batch Still
6.6 Special design problems
7 GENERAL ASPECTS OF EQUIPMENT DESIGN
7.1 Kettle reboilers
7.2 Column Internals
7.3 Condensers and reflux split boxes
8 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION IN
BATCH DISTILLATION
9 MECHANICAL DESIGN FEATURES
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A McCABE - THIELE METHOD - TYPICAL EXAMPLE
Pressure Relief Systems Vol 2
Causes of Relief Situations
This Volume 2 is a guide to the qualitative identification of common causes of overpressure in process equipment. It cannot be exhaustive; the process engineer and relief systems team should look for any credible situation in addition to those given in this Part which could lead to a need for pressure relief (a relief situation).
This document provides guidelines for engineering design of pressure relief systems. It discusses key principles such as identifying potential overpressure and underpressure causes, sizing relief systems to prevent hazards, and safely disposing of relieved materials. The guidelines cover statutory requirements, recommended design procedures, and documentation standards. The overall goal is to preserve equipment integrity and prevent failure from over or under pressure during all process phases.
GAS DISPERSION - A Definitive Guide to Accidental Releases of Heavy GasesGerard B. Hawkins
GAS DISPERSION - A Definitive Guide to Accidental Releases of Heavy Gases
This Process Safety Guide has been written with the aim of assisting process engineers, hazard analysts and environmental advisers in carrying out gas dispersion calculations. The Guide aims to provide assistance by:
• Improving awareness of the range of dispersion models available within GBHE, and providing guidance in choosing the most appropriate model for a particular application.
• Providing guidance to ensure that source terms and other model inputs are correctly specified, and the models are used within their range of applicability.
• Providing guidance to deal with particular topics in gas dispersion such as dense gas dispersion, complex terrain, and modeling the chemistry of oxides of nitrogen.
• Providing general background on air quality and dispersion modeling issues such as meteorology and air quality standards.
• Providing example calculations for real practical problems.
SCOPE
The gas dispersion guide contains the following Parts:
1 Fundamentals of meteorology.
2 Overview of air quality standards.
3 Comparison between different air quality models.
4 Designing a stack.
5 Dense gas dispersion.
6 Calculation of source terms.
7 Building wake effects.
8 Overview of the chemistry of the oxides of nitrogen.
9 Overview of the ADMS complex terrain module.
10 Overview of the ADMS deposition module.
11 ADMS examples.
12 Modeling odorous releases.
13 Bibliography of useful gas dispersion books and reports.
14 Glossary of gas dispersion modeling terms.
Appendix A : Modeling Wind Generation of Particulates.
APPENDIX B TABLE OF PROPERTY VALUES FOR SPECIFIC CHEMICALS
101 Things That Can Go Wrong on a Primary Reformer - Best Practices GuideGerard B. Hawkins
This document discusses common problems that can occur in primary reformers and associated equipment. It identifies issues that can lead to plant shutdowns or efficiency losses, grouping them under catalysts, tubes, furnace boxes, burners, flue gas ducts, headers, and refractories. Some examples discussed include carbon formation, tube overheating, flame impingement, leaks in air preheaters, combustion air maldistribution, and damage to coffins. The document provides an overview of these issues to improve plant reliability over its lifespan.
El impacto en el rendimiento del catalizador por envenenamiento y ensuciamien...Gerard B. Hawkins
El documento describe los procesos de refinería y catalizadores, así como los efectos del envenenamiento y ensuciamiento en el rendimiento de los catalizadores. El envenenamiento reduce la actividad de los catalizadores al bloquear los sitios activos o modificar la química de la superficie, lo que afecta la actividad y selectividad. Los niveles bajos de contaminantes tienen un mayor impacto en catalizadores con menor área de superficie. El envenenamiento también puede causar cambios estructurales en el catalizador y permitir
Theory of Carbon Formation in Steam Reforming
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Underpinning Theory
2.1 Conceptualization
2.2 Reforming Reactions
2.3 Carbon Formation Chemistry
2.3.1 Natural Gas
2.3.2 Carbon Formation for Naphtha Feeds
2.3.3 Carbon Gasification
2.4 Heat Transfer
3 Causes
3.1 Effects of Carbon Formation
3.2 Types of Carbon
4 What are the Effects of Carbon Formation?
4.1 Why does Carbon Formation Get Worse?
4.1.1 So what is the Next Step?
4.2 Consequences of Carbon Formation
4.3 Why does Carbon Form where it does?
4.3.1 Effect on Process Gas Temperature
4.4 Why does Carbon Formation Propagate Down the Tube?
4.4.1 Effect on Radiation on the Fluegas Side
4.5 Why does Carbon Formation propagate Up the Tube?
5 How do we Prevent Carbon Formation
5.1 The Role of Potash
5.2 Inclusion of Pre-reformer
5.3 Primary Reformer Catalyst Parameters
5.3.1 Activity
5.3.2 Heat Transfer
5.3.3 Increased Steam to Carbon Ratio
6 Steam Out
6.1 Why does increasing the Steam to Carbon Ratio Not Work?
6.2 Why does reducing the Feed Rate not help?
6.3 Fundamental Principles of Steam Outs
TABLES
1 Heat Transfer Coefficients in a Typical Reformer
2 Typical Catalyst Loading Options
FIGURES
1 Hot Bands
2 Conceptual Pellet
3 Naphtha Carbon Formation
4 Heat Transfer within an Reformer
5 Types of Carbon Formation
6 Effect of Carbon on Nickel Crystallites
7 Absorption of Heat
8 Comparison of "Base Case" v Carbon Forming Tube
9 Carbon Formation Vicious Circle
10 Temperature Profiles
11 Carbon Pinch Point
12 Carbon Formation
13 Effect on Process Gas Temperature
14 How does Carbon Propagate into an Unaffected Zone?
15 Movement of the Carbon Forming Region
16 Effect of Hot Bands on Radiative Heat Transfer
17 Effect of Potash on Carbon Formation
18 Application of a Pre-reformer
19 Effect of Activity on Carbon Formation
Adiabatic Reactor Analysis for Methanol Synthesis Plant Note Book Series: P...Gerard B. Hawkins
The document discusses adiabatic reactor analysis for methanol synthesis from syngas. It provides the reaction kinetics and calculates conversion, temperature, and reactor volume needed at different conversions. Energy and mass balances are used to derive relationships between conversion, temperature and reaction rate. Data is generated to plot conversion versus volumetric flow rate for reactor sizing. The plot indicates a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) could achieve 85% conversion before switching to a plug flow reactor (PFR) for higher conversion with less volume.
STEAMING PROCEDURE FOR VULCAN STEAM REFORMING CATALYSTSGerard B. Hawkins
The document discusses procedures for steaming Vulcan steam reforming catalysts to recover from sulfur poisoning and carbon formation incidents. It describes maintaining steam flow at 30-40% of design levels and an outlet temperature above 780°C. Gas samples should be taken hourly to monitor CO2, CH4, H2S and SO2. Steaming is complete when CO2 levels stabilize over 2-3 samples after increasing the temperature. The process typically takes 12-24 hours to complete and closely monitors pressure drop and tube conditions. After steaming, the catalyst requires reduction before restarting hydrocarbon feed.
Calculation of an Ammonia Plant Energy Consumption: Gerard B. Hawkins
Calculation of an Ammonia Plant Energy Consumption:
Case Study: #06023300
Plant Note Book Series: PNBS-0602
CONTENTS
0 SCOPE
1 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS PROCESS FEED CONSUMPTION
2 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS PROCESS FUEL CONSUMPTION
3 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS CONSUMPTION FOR PILOT BURNERS OF FLARES
4 CALCULATION OF DEMIN. WATER FROM DEMIN. UNIT
5 CALCULATION OF DEMIN. WATER TO PACKAGE BOILERS
6 CALCULATION OF MP STEAM EXPORT
7 CALCULATION OF LP STEAM IMPORT
8 DETERMINATION OF ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION
9 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT ISBL
10 ADJUSTMENT OF ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION FOR TEST RUN CONDITIONS
11 CALCULATION OF AMMONIA SHARE IN MP STEAM CONSUMPTION IN UTILITIES
12 CALCULATION OF AMMONIA SHARE IN ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION IN UTILITIES
13 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT OSBL
14 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT
Ammonia Plant Technology
Pre-Commissioning Best Practices
GBHE-APT-0102
PICKLING & PASSIVATION
CONTENTS
1 PURPOSE OF THE WORK
2 CHEMICAL CONCEPT
3 TECHNICAL CONCEPT
4 WASTES & SAFETY CONCEPT
5 TARGET RESULTS
6 THE GENERAL CLEANING SEQUENCE MANAGEMENT
6.6.1 Pre-cleaning or “Physical Cleaning
6.6.2 Pre-rinsing
6.6.3 Chemical Cleaning
6.6.4 Critical Factors in Cleaning Success
6.6.5 Rinsing
6.6.6 Inspection and Re-Cleaning, if Necessary
7 Systems to be treated by Pickling/Passivation
Ammonia Plant Technology
Pre-Commissioning Best Practices
Piping and Vessels Flushing and Cleaning Procedure
CONTENTS
1 Scope
2 Aim/purpose
3 Responsibilities
4 Procedure
4.1 Main cleaning methods
4.1.1 Mechanical cleaning
4.1.2 Cleaning with air
4.1.3 Cleaning with steam (for steam networks only)
4.1.4 Cleaning with water
4.2 Choice of the cleaning method
4.3 Cleaning preparation
4.4 Protection of the devices included in the network
4.5 Protection of devices in the vicinity of the network
4.6 Water flushing procedure
4.6.1 Specific problems of water flushing
4.6.2 Preparation for water flushing
4.6.3 Performing a water flush
4.6.4 Cleanliness criteria
4.7 Air blowing procedure
4.7.1 Specific problems of air blowing
4.7.2 Preparation for air blowing
4.7.3 Performing air blowing
4.7.4 Cleanliness checks
4.8 Steam blowing procedure
4.8.1 Specific problems of steam blowing
4.8.2 Preparation for steam blowing
4.8.3 Performing steam blowing
4.8.4 Cleanliness checks
4.9 Chemical cleaning procedure
4.9.1 Specific problems of cleaning with a chemical solution
4.9.2 Preparation for chemical cleaning
4.9.3 Performing a chemical cleaning
4.9.4 Cleanliness criteria
4.10 Re-assembly - general guideline
4.11 Preservation of flushed piping
DESIGN OF VENT GAS COLLECTION AND DESTRUCTION SYSTEMS Gerard B. Hawkins
DESIGN OF VENT GAS COLLECTION AND DESTRUCTION SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose
1.2 Scope of this Guide
1.3 Use of the Guide
2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
2.1 Principal Concerns
2.2 Mechanisms for Ozone Formation
2.3 Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential
2.4 Health and Environmental Effects
2.5 Air Quality Standards for Ground Level Concentrations of Ozone, Targets for Reduction of VOC Discharges and Statutory Discharge Limits
3 VENTS REDUCTION PHILOSOPHY
3.1 Reduction at Source
3.2 End-of-pipe Treatment
4 METHODOLOGY FOR COLLECTION & ASSESSMENT OF PROCESS FLOW DATA
4.1 General
4.2 Identification of Vent Sources
4.3 Characterization of Vents
4.4 Quantification of Process Vent Flows
4.5 Component Flammability Data Collection
4.6 Identification of Operating Scenarios
4.7 Quantification of Flammability Characteristics for Combined Vents
4.8 Identification, Quantification and Assessment of Possibility of Air Ingress Routes
4.9 Tabulation of Data
4.10 Hazard Study and Risk Assessment
4.11 Note on Aqueous / Organic Wastes
4.12 Complexity of Systems
4.13 Summary
5 SAFE DESIGN OF VENT COLLECTION HEADER SYSTEMS
5.1 General
5.2 Process Design of Vent Headers
5.3 Liquid in Vent Headers
5.4 Materials of Construction
5.5 Static Electricity Hazard
5.6 Diversion Systems
5.7 Snuffing Systems
6 SAFE DESIGN OF THERMAL OXIDISERS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Design Basis
6.3 Types of High Temperature Thermal Oxidizer
6.4 Refractories
6.5 Flue Gas Treatment
6.6 Control and Safety Systems
6.7 Project Program
6.8 Commissioning
6.9 Operational and Maintenance Management
APPENDICES
A GLOSSARY
B FLAMMABILITY
C EXAMPLE PROFORMA
D REFERENCES
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS GUIDE
TABLE
1 PHOTOCHEMICAL OZONE CREATION POTENTIAL REFERENCED
TO ETHYLENE AS UNITY
FIGURES
1 SCHEMATIC OF TYPICAL VENT COLLECTION AND THERMAL OXIDIZER SYSTEM
2 TYPICAL KNOCK-OUT POT WITH LUTED DRAIN
3 SCHEMATIC OF DIVERSION SYSTEM
4 CONVENTIONAL VERTICAL THERMAL OXIDIZER
5 CONVENTIONAL OXIDIZER WITH INTEGRAL WATER SPARGER
6 THERMAL OXIDIZER WITH STAGED AIR INJECTION
7 DOWN-FIRED UNIT WITH WATER BATH QUENCH
8 FLAMELESS THERMAL OXIDATION UNIT
9 THERMAL OXIDIZER WITH REGENERATIVE HEAT RECOVERY
10 TYPICAL PROJECT PROGRAM
11 TYPICAL FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM
12 EFFECT OF DILUTION WITH AIR
13 EFFECT OF DILUTION WITH AIR ON 100 Rm³ OF FLAMMABLE GAS
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE SELECTION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY FOR THE TREATMENT OF A...Gerard B. Hawkins
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE SELECTION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY FOR THE TREATMENT OF AQUEOUS ORGANIC EFFLUENT STREAMS
CONTENTS
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
3.1 IPU
3.2 AOS
3.3 BODs
3.4 COD
3.5 TOC
3.6 Toxicity
3.7 Refractory Organics/Hard COD
3.8 Heavy Metals
3.9 EA
3.10 Biological Treatment Terms
3.11 BATNEEC
3.12 BPEO
3.13 EQS/LV
3.14 IPC
3.15 VOC
3.16 F/M Ratio
3.17 MLSS
3.18 MLVSS
4 DESIGN/ECONOMIC GUIDELINES
5 EUROPEAN LEGISLATION
5.1 General
5.2 Integrated Pollution Control (IPC)
5.3 Best Available Techniques Not Entailing Excessive Costs (BATNEEC)
5.4 Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO)
5.5 Environmental Quality Standards(EQS)
6 IPU EXIT CONCENTRATION
7 SITE/LOCAL REQUIREMENTS
8 PROCESS SELECTION PROCEDURE
8.1 Waste Minimization Techniques (WMT)
8.2 AOS Stream Definition
8.3 Technical Check List
8.4 Preliminary Selection of Suitable Technologies
8.5 Process Sequences
8.6 Economic Evaluation
8.7 Process Selection
APPENDICES
A DIRECTIVE 76/464/EEC - LIST 1
B DIRECTIVE 76/464/EEC - LIST 2
C THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION PRIORITY CANDIDATE LIST
D THE UK RED LIST
E CURRENT VALUES FOR EUROPEAN COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY STANDARDS AND CORRESPONDING LIMIT VALUES
F ESTABLISHED TECHNOLOGIES
G EMERGING TECHNOLOGY
H PROPRIETARY/LESS COMMON TECHNOLOGIES
J COMPARATIVE COST DATA
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE REDUCTION OF DISCHARGES TO ATMOSPHERE OF VOLATILE ORGA...Gerard B. Hawkins
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE REDUCTION OF DISCHARGES TO ATMOSPHERE OF VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCs)
FOREWORD
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
2 THE NEED FOR VOC CONTROL
3 CONTROL AT SOURCE
3.1 Choice or Solvent
3.2 Venting Arrangements
3.3 Nitrogen Blanketing
3.4 Pump Versus Pneumatic Transfer
3.5 Batch Charging
3.6 Reduction of Volumetric Flow
3.7 Stock Tank Design
4 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT
4.1 By Inference or Calculation
4.2 Flow Monitoring Equipment
4.3 Analytical Instruments
4.4 Vent Emissions Database
5 ABATEMENT TECHNOLOGY
5.1 Available Options
5.2 Selection of Preferred Option
5.3 Condensation
5.4 Adsorption
5.5 Absorption
5.6 Thermal Incineration
5.7 Catalytic Oxidation
5.8 Biological Filtration
5.9 Combinations of Process technologies
5.10 Processes Under Development
6 GLOSSARY OF TERMS
7 REFERENCES
Appendix 1. Photochemical Ozone Creation Potentials
Appendix 2. Examples of Adsorption Preliminary Calculations
Appendix 3. Example of Thermal Incineration Heat and Mass Balance
Appendix 4. Cost Correlations
Getting the Most Out of Your Refinery Hydrogen PlantGerard B. Hawkins
Getting the Most Out of Your Refinery Hydrogen Plant
Contents
Summary
1 Introduction
2 "On-purpose" Hydrogen Production
3 Operational Aspects
4 Uprating Options on the Steam Reformer
4.1 Steam Reforming Catalysts and Tube Metallurgy
4.2 Oxygen-blown Secondary Reformer
4.3 Pre-reforming
4.4 Post-reforming
5 Downstream Units
6 Summary of Uprating Options
7 Conclusions
EMERGENCY ISOLATION OF CHEMICAL PLANTS
CONTENTS
1 Introduction
2 When should Emergency Isolation Valves be Installed
3 Emergency Isolation Valves and Associated Equipment
3.1 Installations on existing plant
3.2 Actuators
3.3 Power to close or power to open
3.4 The need for testing
3.5 Hand operated Emergency Valves
3.6 The need to stop pumps in an emergency
3.7 Location of Operating Buttons
3.8 Use of control valves for Isolation
4 Detection of Leaks and Fires
5 Precautions during Maintenance
6 Training Operators to use Emergency Isolation Valves
7 Emergency Isolation when no remotely operated valve is available
References
Glossary
Appendix I Some Fires or Serious Escapes of Flammable Gases or Liquids that could have been controlled by Emergency Isolation Valves
Appendix II Some typical Installations
Amine Gas Treating Unit - Best Practices - Troubleshooting Guide Gerard B. Hawkins
Amine Gas Treating Unit Best Practices - Troubleshooting Guide for H2S/CO2 Amine Systems
Contents
Process Capabilities for gas treating process
Typical Amine Treating
Typical Amine System Improvements
Primary Equipment Overview
Inlet Gas Knockout
Absorber
Three Phase Flash Tank
Lean/Rich Heat Exchanger
Regenerator
Filtration
Amine Reclaimer
Operating Difficulties Overview
Foaming
Failure to Meet Gas Specification
Solvent Losses
Corrosion
Typical Amine System Improvements
Degradation of Amines and Alkanolamines during Sour Gas Treating
APPENDIX
Best Practices - Troubleshooting Guide
Programming Foundation Models with DSPy - Meetup SlidesZilliz
Prompting language models is hard, while programming language models is easy. In this talk, I will discuss the state-of-the-art framework DSPy for programming foundation models with its powerful optimizers and runtime constraint system.
Digital Marketing Trends in 2024 | Guide for Staying AheadWask
https://www.wask.co/ebooks/digital-marketing-trends-in-2024
Feeling lost in the digital marketing whirlwind of 2024? Technology is changing, consumer habits are evolving, and staying ahead of the curve feels like a never-ending pursuit. This e-book is your compass. Dive into actionable insights to handle the complexities of modern marketing. From hyper-personalization to the power of user-generated content, learn how to build long-term relationships with your audience and unlock the secrets to success in the ever-shifting digital landscape.
Best 20 SEO Techniques To Improve Website Visibility In SERPPixlogix Infotech
Boost your website's visibility with proven SEO techniques! Our latest blog dives into essential strategies to enhance your online presence, increase traffic, and rank higher on search engines. From keyword optimization to quality content creation, learn how to make your site stand out in the crowded digital landscape. Discover actionable tips and expert insights to elevate your SEO game.
Ivanti’s Patch Tuesday breakdown goes beyond patching your applications and brings you the intelligence and guidance needed to prioritize where to focus your attention first. Catch early analysis on our Ivanti blog, then join industry expert Chris Goettl for the Patch Tuesday Webinar Event. There we’ll do a deep dive into each of the bulletins and give guidance on the risks associated with the newly-identified vulnerabilities.
leewayhertz.com-AI in predictive maintenance Use cases technologies benefits ...alexjohnson7307
Predictive maintenance is a proactive approach that anticipates equipment failures before they happen. At the forefront of this innovative strategy is Artificial Intelligence (AI), which brings unprecedented precision and efficiency. AI in predictive maintenance is transforming industries by reducing downtime, minimizing costs, and enhancing productivity.
GraphRAG for Life Science to increase LLM accuracyTomaz Bratanic
GraphRAG for life science domain, where you retriever information from biomedical knowledge graphs using LLMs to increase the accuracy and performance of generated answers
HCL Notes and Domino License Cost Reduction in the World of DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-and-domino-license-cost-reduction-in-the-world-of-dlau/
The introduction of DLAU and the CCB & CCX licensing model caused quite a stir in the HCL community. As a Notes and Domino customer, you may have faced challenges with unexpected user counts and license costs. You probably have questions on how this new licensing approach works and how to benefit from it. Most importantly, you likely have budget constraints and want to save money where possible. Don’t worry, we can help with all of this!
We’ll show you how to fix common misconfigurations that cause higher-than-expected user counts, and how to identify accounts which you can deactivate to save money. There are also frequent patterns that can cause unnecessary cost, like using a person document instead of a mail-in for shared mailboxes. We’ll provide examples and solutions for those as well. And naturally we’ll explain the new licensing model.
Join HCL Ambassador Marc Thomas in this webinar with a special guest appearance from Franz Walder. It will give you the tools and know-how to stay on top of what is going on with Domino licensing. You will be able lower your cost through an optimized configuration and keep it low going forward.
These topics will be covered
- Reducing license cost by finding and fixing misconfigurations and superfluous accounts
- How do CCB and CCX licenses really work?
- Understanding the DLAU tool and how to best utilize it
- Tips for common problem areas, like team mailboxes, functional/test users, etc
- Practical examples and best practices to implement right away
Salesforce Integration for Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions A...Jeffrey Haguewood
Sidekick Solutions uses Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions Apricot) and automation solutions to integrate data for business workflows.
We believe integration and automation are essential to user experience and the promise of efficient work through technology. Automation is the critical ingredient to realizing that full vision. We develop integration products and services for Bonterra Case Management software to support the deployment of automations for a variety of use cases.
This video focuses on integration of Salesforce with Bonterra Impact Management.
Interested in deploying an integration with Salesforce for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
Have you ever been confused by the myriad of choices offered by AWS for hosting a website or an API?
Lambda, Elastic Beanstalk, Lightsail, Amplify, S3 (and more!) can each host websites + APIs. But which one should we choose?
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In the realm of cybersecurity, offensive security practices act as a critical shield. By simulating real-world attacks in a controlled environment, these techniques expose vulnerabilities before malicious actors can exploit them. This proactive approach allows manufacturers to identify and fix weaknesses, significantly enhancing system security.
This presentation delves into the development of a system designed to mimic Galileo's Open Service signal using software-defined radio (SDR) technology. We'll begin with a foundational overview of both Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) and the intricacies of digital signal processing.
The presentation culminates in a live demonstration. We'll showcase the manipulation of Galileo's Open Service pilot signal, simulating an attack on various software and hardware systems. This practical demonstration serves to highlight the potential consequences of unaddressed vulnerabilities, emphasizing the importance of offensive security practices in safeguarding critical infrastructure.
A Comprehensive Guide to DeFi Development Services in 2024Intelisync
DeFi represents a paradigm shift in the financial industry. Instead of relying on traditional, centralized institutions like banks, DeFi leverages blockchain technology to create a decentralized network of financial services. This means that financial transactions can occur directly between parties, without intermediaries, using smart contracts on platforms like Ethereum.
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In summary, DeFi in 2024 is not just a trend; it’s a revolution that democratizes finance, enhances security and transparency, and fosters continuous innovation. As we proceed through this presentation, we'll explore the various components and services of DeFi in detail, shedding light on how they are transforming the financial landscape.
At Intelisync, we specialize in providing comprehensive DeFi development services tailored to meet the unique needs of our clients. From smart contract development to dApp creation and security audits, we ensure that your DeFi project is built with innovation, security, and scalability in mind. Trust Intelisync to guide you through the intricate landscape of decentralized finance and unlock the full potential of blockchain technology.
Ready to take your DeFi project to the next level? Partner with Intelisync for expert DeFi development services today!
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind für viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heißes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und Lizenzgebühren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer möglich. Das verstehen wir und wir möchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
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- Reduzierung der Lizenzkosten durch Auffinden und Beheben von Fehlkonfigurationen und überflüssigen Konten
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- Verstehen des DLAU-Tools und wie man es am besten nutzt
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Deep Dive: AI-Powered Marketing to Get More Leads and Customers with HyperGro...
Homogeneous Reactors
1. GBH Enterprises, Ltd.
Process Engineering Guide:
GBHE-PEG-RXT-809
Homogeneous Reactors
Information contained in this publication or as otherwise supplied to Users is
believed to be accurate and correct at time of going to press, and is given in
good faith, but it is for the User to satisfy itself of the suitability of the information
for its own particular purpose. GBHE gives no warranty as to the fitness of this
information for any particular purpose and any implied warranty or condition
(statutory or otherwise) is excluded except to the extent that exclusion is
prevented by law. GBHE accepts no liability for loss or damage (other than that
arising from death or personnel injury caused by GBHE’s negligence. GBHE will
accept no liability resulting from reliance on this information. Freedom under
Patent, Copyright and Designs cannot be assumed.
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Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
2. CONTENTS
Page
0
1
2
3
4
INTRODUCTION / PURPOSE
SCOPE
FIELD OF APPLICATION
DEFINITIONS
DESIGN STEPS
2
2
2
2
2
4.1
4.2
4.3
3
4
6
Residence Time and Flow Pattern
Modeling of Ideal Reactor Types
Costing
5
EQUIPMENT SELECTION SUMMARY
6
6
EQUIPMENT EXAMPLES
8
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
8
9
10
12
7
Gas Reactors - Plug Flow
Gas Reactors - Backmixed or Batch
Liquid Reactors - Low Viscosity
Liquid Reactors - High Viscosity
13
7.1
7.2
8
MEASUREMENT OF HOMOGENEOUS REACTION KINETICS
14
14
Gas Phase Reactions
Liquid Phase Reactions
NOMENCLATURE
15
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Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
3. TABLES
1
EQUIPMENT SUMMARY
7
FIGURES
1
LOOP REACTOR
9
2
BACKMIXED GAS REACTOR
9
3
IN-LINE FLOW MIXERS
10
4
SPINNING CONE THIN-FILM REACTOR
10
5
STIRRED VESSEL REACTOR
11
6
JET-MIXED REACTOR VESSEL
11
7
EXTRUDER
12
8
SCRAPED-FILM REACTOR
12
9
Z-BLADE MIXER
13
10
CONTINUOUS FLOW
14
11
STOPPED FLOW
15
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS
ENGINEERING GUIDE
16
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Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
4. 0
INTRODUCTIONS / PURPOSE
This Guide is one of a series of Guides produced by GBH Enterprises,
C2PT Catalyst Process Technology Consultancy.
1
SCOPE
This Guide sets out the key steps in the design of gas or liquid phase
homogeneous reactors and suggests appropriate types of reactor
according to the required residence time, flow pattern and heat transfer
duty.
A liquid phase reactor with a vapor product is covered only if the vapor
removal rate does not affect the overall rate. If it does, consider thin-film
reactors.
2
FIELD OF APPLICATION
This Guide applies to the process engineering community in the GBH
Enterprises.
3
DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this Guide, the following definition applies:
Homogeneous
Reactions
Reactions having only one phase (gas or liquid) in the
reactor or, if there is another phase, it has no effect
on the reaction, on the fluid flow or on the
temperature.
With the exception of terms used as proper nouns or titles, those terms
with initial capital letters which appear in this document and are not
defined above are defined in the Glossary of Engineering Terms.
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5. 4
DESIGN STEPS
A logical progression of events for the design of a homogeneous
phase reactor are:
(a)
Identify the important reaction products and by-products, and
the reaction steps. Specify the downstream equipment for
separation and treatment of the product, and for effluent
disposal if any. Decide the relative yield required for
satisfactory economics.
(b)
Decide on solvents or diluents, temperature, concentrations
and pressure. Reiterate from (a) if necessary.
(c)
Measure the kinetics (rate constants and orders of reaction)
of these steps, see Clause 7 for measurement methods.
Note any reversible (equilibrium) steps).
(d)
If the reaction scheme is complex and the economics justify
it, a computer model may be required to describe the
interactions between reactions; see GBHE-PEG-RXT-800
Series Proprietary Tools for Reactor Modeling.
(e)
Measure the heat of reaction; see GBHE-PEG-RXT-804
Decide on the materials of construction.
(f)
Recycle from (b) if necessary.
(g)
Decide on batch or continuous operation; see GBHE-PEGRXT-800. Decide on residence time, and flow pattern
(residence time distribution) ideally required in the reactor,
see below and GBHE-PEG-RXT-802.
(h)
Make an initial selection of equipment from Table 1 (see
Clause 5). If this is not possible or impractical, consider the
sensitivity of the reaction operational yield and selectivity to
the factors in steps (b) and (g) and make a new compromise.
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6. (j)
Calculate an approximate size for the reactor.
Assess how closely the flow is likely to approach the ideal
required. It may not be very close (especially if the reactor is
large), in which case, if the costs are sensitive to it, it will
be necessary to computer model the reaction within the flow
pattern (see 4.1). If a semitech or pilot scale plant is being
designed, its flow pattern should be made to copy that of
the proposed plant.
(k)
(l)
4.1
Obtain the flowsheet and approximate sizing of downstream
equipment.
Obtain an approximate costing of the system. Annualize the
capital cost and add raw materials and operating costs. If the
cost is unacceptable, reconsider the decisions of steps (b),
(d), (g) and (h) to find a new compromise. Examine how
sensitive the costs are to reactor flow pattern and revisit (j) if
necessary.
Residence Time and Flow Pattern
GBHE-PEG-RXT-802 gives the basic effects of residence time
distribution on reaction rate and conversion, see also
GBHE-PEG-RXT-802. This implies that, for simple reactions of the
order > 0, a backmixed reactor will be larger than the plug flow
reactor for the same conversion (e.g. by a factor of 3.9 for 90%
conversion, or 21.5 for 99% conversion with a first order reaction).
For multiple reactions, the reaction selectivity will also be affected,
for example, with the reaction:
A B C
high selectivity to B can only be obtained with plug flow whereas
backmixed flow favors conversion to C; or for:
A+B R
R+B S
high production of R requires plug flow, (and sufficiently rapid
mixing of A and B). Whereas formation of S is favored by
backmixing.
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7. Sometimes reactions of widely differing rate have to be accommodated
together and a combination of reactor types is used. This can also be
done for temperature effects, for example a backmixed zone with an
exothermic reaction can be placed before a plug flow reactor in order to
bring reactants up to temperature quickly [Ref. 1].
The models used to simulate the performance of the basic ideal reactor
types are described in 4.2. Non-ideal and more complicated cases are
dealt with in many textbooks, for example [Ref. 2], [3] and [4].
Residence time distribution in continuous reactors refers to mixedness in
the main flow direction. In plug flow, for any but first order reactions, the
degree of cross or radial mixedness is important: the extremes are often
referred to as premixed or segregated feeds; see GBHE-PEG-RXT-802.
Sometimes rapid radial mixers (e.g. turbulent jets) are used at the entry to
tubular plug flow reactors.
Obviously the theory can only be used for real reactors if the fluid
dynamics provide a reasonably close approach to one of the ideal
residence time distribution. Often this is not so, and more complex RTD
models are used, either:
(a)
Using networks of interlinked ideal reactors of appropriate size to
model a measured RTD (this descriptive method is touched on in
GBHE-PEG-RXT-802.
Or
(b)
Computing the flow patterns and reaction progress using
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) programs, which are basically
predictive since they use fine-detail fundamental calculations
without specific empirical input? GBHE-PEG-RXT-800 Series
Proprietary Tools for Reactor Modeling.
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8. 4.2
Modeling of Ideal Reactor Types
This section illustrates the sort of equations which arise in describing the
ideal reactor types. They may be useful for initial design and approximate
reactor sizing.
Chemistry: Consider for example the general reaction scheme:
Where A, B, D, and E are chemical species, and R1, R2 and R3 are the
reaction rates (in moles/volume, time).
The rates are functions of concentration, temperature and sometimes
pressure and are defined by:
where C is a concentration in moles/volume, and t is time.
Each reaction has an associated heat of reaction ∆H1, ∆H2 and ∆H3 in
energy/mole, (negative for exotherms).
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9. 4.2.1 Ideal Batch Model
The above differential equations must be solved, often with R nonlinear in C, and certainly non-linear if temperature varies, in which
case a heat balance equation is required:
4.2.2 Ideal Plug Flow Reactor Model
Again a set of differential equations arises; the first of these is
These equations can be solved by writing a program using a standard
routine (e.g. from NAG Library) to do the integration from x=0 to x=reactor
length, see GBHE-PEG-RXT-800 Series Proprietary Tools for Reactor
Modeling.
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10. 4.2.3 Ideal Backmixed Reactor Model
This model gives a series of algebraic equations, e.g.:
The heat balance equation if the reactor is non-isothermal is:
4.3
Costing
The item cost of the reactor may be obtained from in-house engineers if it
is a vessel, tube, heat exchanger, etc., or from manufacturers if it is
proprietary device (such as a Sulzer mixer, Buss Loop Reactor, or high
viscosity mixer). This must be multiplied by factors (consult GBH
Enterprises, Engineering) for instrumentation, installation and design
charges to give the installed cost. Downstream equipment could be
specified approximately from short-cut design methods (see [Ref. 5], and
costed as above. Its cost may be substantially greater than that of the
reactor.
5
EQUIPMENT SELECTION SUMMARY
Table 1 lists a wide selection of designs, classified by Gas, Low Viscosity
Liquid, or High Viscosity Liquid, then according to flow pattern and heat
exchange system. Low Viscosity refers to liquids which can be practically
processed in turbulent flow; say Reynolds Number,
Re = ρDU / µ > 1000 or viscosity µ > 1 Pas (1000 cp).
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11. Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
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Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
12. 6
EQUIPMENT EXAMPLES
6.1
Gas Reactors - Plug Flow
Thermal crackers are typical examples; generally multiple tubular reactors
in furnaces. High process side heat transfer coefficients and close
approach to plug flow require turbulence, hence high velocities and short
residence times. Pressure drop consideration may require a compromise
on the tube velocity. Multiple tubes in parallel are often used to increase
heat transfer area.
For a given process, throughput Q and mean residence time t are
specified i.e.:
An empty tube is cheap and easy to clean, but has a longer mixing length
(95% mixed in about 100 diameters, if turbulent) than a jet mixer or static
mixer (95% mixed in about seven diameters). An empty tube in laminar
flow provides no mixing. With a static mixer, flow is more pluggish and
process side heat transfer coefficient is about four times that in an empty
tube.
Adding a swirl component to the jet flow in a coaxial jet mixer improves the
mixing substantially (common in combustor technology).
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13. GBH Enterprises examples are:
(a) Naphtha cracking;
(b) Arcton cracking;
(c) EDC cracking.
Stirred tube reactors were used on the polythene process to get near the
plug flow without having to use turbulent flow (the gas had a density of
about 1000 kg/m3) at the cost of mechanical complexity.
Inert-solids fluidized beds can be used for heat transfer to gas reactions,
with heat input via jacket, induction heating, internal heaters (preferably
short vertical plate heaters), or submerged combustion. Gas superficial
velocity would be around 1 m/s.
Gas turbines can be used for very rapid reactions with positive volume
change, to provide mechanical work.
6.2
Gas Reactors - Backmixed or Batch
Any of the above plug flow reactors can be used within a loop to provide a
batch reactor, or a good approach to a continuous backmixed reactor (if
the recirculation rate > 10 x throughflow rate). A blower or compressor will
be required to drive the recirculation flow (Fig. 1), unless there is sufficient
feed pressure to re-induce it by means of an eductor.
Where the kinetics are appropriate a backmixed reactor can also act as
the preheater for exothermic reactions.
FIGURE 1
LOOP REACTOR
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14. For short residence times an approximately backmixed vessel can be
used, with jet mixing provided by the input stream (or a recycle stream)
(Fig. 2). Typically a draught tube is used to organize the flow pattern.
FIGURE 2
BACKMIXED GAS REACTOR
Early work by Bush and Shires attempts to model the degree of
recirculation: now it is preferable to use CFD methods.
Examples are: Chloromethanes reactors; HCl generators.
Internal combustion engines are a special case for very rapid reactions
with large volume increase (e.g. combustion) where shaft work is to be
extracted.
6.3
Liquid Reactors - Low Viscosity
6.3.1 Plug Flow
The above remarks for gas tubular and stirred tube reactors apply here
also. Coaxial or side entry jet mixers in turbulent flow provide very rapid
mixing between streams, as do turbulent static mixers, which also give
near-plug flow (Fig. 3).
If velocities or tube lengths preclude these, the oscillating-flow baffled tube
(M Mackley et al, Cambridge University) could be considered: a pilot scale
example is used in the CANDID project.
Examples are: Burn Hall plant scale jet mixer; reaction injection moulding;
nitroglycerine reactor; CANDID reactor.
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15. FIGURE 3
IN-LINE FLOW MIXERS
Centrifugal thin-film reactors have been developed to semi-tech scale by
the GBH Enterprises Process Technology Group. The preferred type is
the spinning cone in which a thin, turbulent liquid film flows up the inside of
a rotating cone and is collected for recirculation at the top (Fig. 4). Heat
transfer (by evaporation or rotating jacket) is intense.
FIGURE 4
SPINNING CONE THIN-FILM REACTOR
6.3.2 Backmixed or Batch
The most common near-backmixed reactor for liquids is the stirred vessel
(Fig. 5); it is versatile and flexible (mixing varied independently of
throughput). Heat transfer via jacket must often be supplemented by
internal coils or recirculation through external heat exchangers; boiling and
reflux must be resorted to for highly exothermic processes, though this is
limited by liquid entrainment by the exit vapor (maximum vapor superficial
velocity 1.5 m/s).
Recommended agitators are axial flow hydrofoil types for overall blending
or disk turbines for high local (micro-) mixing. Liquid mixing is often
promoted by wall baffles (though mixing per unit power input is claimed to
be higher without). It is difficult to predict (varied correlations
from unreliable data);
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16. CFD could help here. 95% mixing times are around 5 sec for a lab vessel
to 100 sec for a large plant vessel, so an ideal mixing assumption cannot
be made with rapid reactions. If the reaction is sensitive to mixing CFD
(MIXFLOW) modeling is required. Local shear stress is highly nonuniform.
FIGURE 5
STIRRED VESSEL REACTOR
Thermal instabilities (multiple steady states) can occur by interaction
between reaction thermodynamics and heat transfer rate.
Capital cost depends on vessel size and drive torque but is often an
insignificant fraction of plant cost (beware of agitator manufacturers
excessively paring down shaft sizes). Operating cost depends on drive
power.
Jet-mixed vessels (Fig. 6) are a somewhat less vigorous and flexible
alternative, useful mainly when a feed or recirculating stream of sufficient
momentum is to hand. They are also useful where a rotating stirrer shaft
seal would be a problem (but not the pump seal!), and where exotic
materials of construction are necessary.
FIGURE 6
JET-MIXED REACTOR VESSEL
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17. 6.4
Liquid Reactors - High Viscosity
6.4.1 Plug Flow
Static mixers may be used up to very high viscosities; limited only by
practicalities of pumping. Again flow is much more pluggish that an empty
tube (N.B. laminar flow). Heat transfer area per unit reaction volume is
high.
Extruders are common for very high viscosity transport and heat transfer.
Mixing of streams is poor in a conventional single-screw extruder (Fig. 7),
but is good when mixing zone (e.g. Cavity Transfer Mixer) is added, or if a
twin-screw extruder is used (expensive!).
FIGURE 7
EXTRUDER
Scraped-surface thin film machines (Fig. 8) offer very high heat transfer
per unit liquid volume (via either jacket or evaporation), with near-plug
flow, so are suitable for temperature-sensitive reactions or materials.
FIGURE 8
SCRAPED-FILM REACTOR
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18. 6.4.2 Backmixed or Batch
For the moderate viscosity range (up to say 104Pa.s) stirred vessels with
helical ribbon, helical screw (both for shear-thinning or yield-stress fluids),
anchor, or bent-anchor stirrers are recommended. The standard anchor
provides only poor mixing, but good heat transfer to the wall. The bentanchor was devised to improve the axial turnover and mixing.
With higher viscosities mechanical stresses and power intensities are
high, and the specialized stirred chamber mixers are used. These have
rotating blades (of various types) which cover the entire volume of the
enclosed chamber. Common blade shapes include twin concentrate
helices, Z-blades (Fig. 9), double naben blades, and intermeshing cams.
Twin-screw extruders also come into this category. Some theory is
available (see the GBHE Mixing and Agitation Manual) but design is
limited to trials with the manufacturers' specific machines.
EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS: APV-Baker-Perkins Ltd. (D Todd,USA).
Werner-Pfleiderer GmbH.
Banbury Mixers Ltd.
FIGURE 9
7
Z-BLADE MIXER
MEASUREMENT OF HOMOGENEOUS REACTION KINETICS
Elucidation of reaction pathways and measurement of kinetics in sufficient
detail is the key to the design of efficient and predictable reactors. The
measurements are often hampered by the limitations of quantitative
analysis of intermediates or products, so the analysis methods should
be established before any kinetics measurements are contemplated. If
unsteady-state (batch) measurements are to be made, the response of the
measurement instrument or sampling and quench system must be much
more rapid than the characteristic time of the reactions under study.
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19. Wherever possible all reactants and products should be measured so that a
mass balance can be established. This is a valuable check on the accuracy of
the concentration measurements.
Generally isothermal conditions are required for ease of interpretation, except
where the rate of temperature rise in an adiabatic system is being used to
measure overall reaction rate.
The kinetics measuring reactor should preferable operate without mixing effects
influencing the reaction progress, or at least mixing influences must be
comparatively minor and modellable.
The reactor can be either used in batch or continuous steady-state mode.
Steady-state measurements are easier to interpret but batch experiments are
often more convenient, especially for slower reactions. If a continuous reactor is
used it should approximate well to either an ideal plug-flow or backmixed reactor
for ease of interpreting the results. Plug flow reactors can be operated in
differential (low conversion) or integral (high conversion) mode; see
GBHE-PEG-RXT-805 for a discussion of these.
The kinetics of most homogeneous reaction steps are represented by one of the
following rate equations (CA and CB are reactant concentrations for liquids or
facilities for gases):
Sometimes it is not possible to elucidate a step in full detail, and rates must be
modeled using non-integral apparent orders.
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20. Complex interactions of species can be modeled with GBHE-PEG-RXT800 Series Proprietary Tools for Reactor Modeling.
Fitting of parameters to models is covered in GBHE-PEG-RXT-800 Series
Proprietary Tools for Reactor Modeling.
7.1
Gas Phase Reactions
Steady-state measurements are made using a small-diameter (<10 mm)
tubular reactor (a microreactor) installed in an appropriate constant
temperature environment. Integral or differential experiments can be
carried out according to ease of concentration measurement and
temperature control. as described in GBHE-PEG-RXT-805. Reactor
diameters of less than about 10mm are recommended to minimize the
effects of mass and heat transfer on the kinetic results. [Ref. 6] (Section
1.6) gives some guidance for handling complex reactions.
Batch methods available include temperature jump and pressure jump
methods, in which the well-mixed reactants are placed in a closed vessel
at non-reacting conditions, which are suddenly adjusted to the desired
reaction conditions. A suitable transient (pressure, temperature,
concentration) is measured and analyzed by fitting rate expressions to it.
Very rapid reactions can be studied in this way. See [Ref. 7].
7.2
Liquid Phase Reactions
Removal of diffusion limitations and mixing effects is more difficult than
with gas reactions.
For steady-state isothermal work a tubular microreactor can be used but it
must be of very small diameter (Goddard and Deans recommend 0.2 - 0.5
mm [Ref. 13]) or run at high velocity to achieve adequate radial mixedness
to match a fully turbulent plant reactor. Radial mixing through the reactor,
and approach to plug flow, can be improved by using Static mixer (if a
sufficiently small one can be found). Initial mixing is often achieved using a
turbulent jet mixer of coaxial or T-jet design (Fig. 10) which for low
viscosity systems enable reaction times down to 10 msec to be studied.
See Reports [Refs 8], [9], [10] and [11]. Experiments should be repeated
at different velocities to check for absence of mixing effects.
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21. FIGURE 10
CONTINUOUS FLOW
In the Integral form, extra information can be gathered by on-line
measurement (e.g. spectrophotometry, NMR, or small temperature
changes) or sampling (with rapid quench) at intervals along the tube.
For slower reactions a continuous stirred vessel reactor could be useful if
the backmixing is near ideal. Stirrer speed should be varied to check for
mixing effects.
A batch method is available for rapid aqueous reactions (reaction time 5
milliseconds) at <70°C and 1atm. This is the stopped flow technique (Fig.
11). Reactants flow through a small jet-mixed glass mixing cell, the flow is
suddenly stopped and the concentrations followed versus time by
spectrophotometry, or some other rapid response technique. The
equipment is available commercially; see Report [Ref. 12].
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22. FIGURE 11 STOPPED FLOW
For slower reactions (reaction times > 5 sec for low viscosities; slower for
higher viscosities) a batch stirred vessel is commonly used. Experiments
must be repeated at various stirrer speeds to confirm freedom from mixing
limitations. Guidance on design can be obtained from GBHE-PEG-MIX701; if the design is unconventional it may be modeled using the GBHEPEG-RXT-800 Series Proprietary Tools for Reactor Modeling,
computer program to calculate mixing time, etc. see GBHE-PEG-RXT800 Series Proprietary Tools for Reactor Modeling.
Temperature is kept constant by means of a jacket or immersed coil
(which must not interfere with the mixing), or by boiling and reflux, in which
case care must be taken to design for the minimum unmixed holdup in the
condenser.
8
NOMENCLATURE
D
U
Re
L
n
Q
ρ
µ
t
∆p
Characteristic length; tube diameter; agitator diameter.
Characteristic velocity; tube mean velocity.
Reynolds Number = uDU/o.
Tube length.
Number of tubes.
Volumetric throughput of reactor.
Mean fluid density.
Mean fluid viscosity.
Mean residence time in reactor.
Pressure drop over reactor tube.
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24. DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS ENGINEERING GUIDE
This Process Engineering Guide makes reference to the following
documents:
GBHE-PEG-MIX-700
Experts on Mixing and Agitation
(referred to in 7.2)
GBHE-PEG-MIX-701
Mixing of Miscible Liquids
(referred to in Clause 5 and 7.2)
GBHE-PEG-MIX-702
Gas Mixing
(referred to in 5.1)
GBHE-PEG-RXT-800
How to use the Reactor Technology Guides
(referred to in Clause 4 and 4.1)
GBHE-PEG-RXT-802
Residence Time Distribution Data
(referred to in Clause 4 and 4.1)
GBHE-PEG-RXT-804
Physical Properties and Thermochemistry for
Reactor Technology
(referred to in Clause 4)
GBHE-PEG-RXT-805
Solid Catalyzed Reactions
(referred to in Clause 7 and 7.1)
GBHE-PEG-RXT-810
Gas-Liquid Reactors
(referred to in Clauses 0 and 1)
GBHE-PEG-RXT-800 Series Proprietary Tools for Reactor Modeling.
Reactor Dynamics Control and Safety
Tools for Reactor Modeling
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25. REPORTS
Use of a Semi-Tech Rapidly Mixed Tubular Reactor for a Preliminary Study of
the Methacrylamide Reaction System (referred to in 7.2 and Clause 9)
A Rapidly Mixed Continuous Flow Tubular Reactor Rig for the Study of Fast
Liquid Phase Reactor Systems (referred to in 7.2 and Clause 9)
The Measurement of Fast Liquid Phase Reaction Rates by Kinetic Spectrometry
in a Stopped Flow Apparatus (referred to in 7.2 and Clause 9)
A Rapidly Mixed Continuous Flow Tubular Reactor Rig for the Study of Fast
Liquid Phase Reaction Systems at High Temperatures and Pressures
(referred to in 7.2 and Clause 9)
The Design of an Experimental Rig to Study the Nitration of Chlorobenzene in
Liquid Hydrogen Fluoride (referred to in 7.2 and Clause 9)
Integrated Reactor Systems Procedure (referred to in 4.3 and Clause 9)
Reactor Design (referred to in 4.1 and Clause 9).
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