This document provides information about hepatic disorders including cirrhosis, hepatitis, and fulminant hepatic failure. It discusses the liver's functions and locations. Common causes of cirrhosis include alcohol, hepatitis B and C, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Signs and symptoms can include jaundice, ascites, and hepatic encephalopathy. Hepatitis A, B, C, D, E, and G viruses are the main causes of viral hepatitis. Transmission occurs through fecal-oral, blood, or sexual contact. Treatment focuses on supportive care and management of complications while prevention emphasizes vaccination, hygiene, and avoiding risk factors.
Gastritis is a condition in which the stomach
lining—known as the mucosa—is inflamed. The stomach lining contains special
cells that produce acid and enzymes, which help break down food for digestion,
and mucus, which protects the stomach lining from acid. When the stomach lining
is inflamed, it produces less acid, enzymes, and mucus.
Gastritis may be acute or chronic. Sudden,
severe inflammation of the stomach lining is called acute gastritis. Inflammation
that lasts for a long time is called chronic gastritis. If chronic gastritis is
not treated, it may last for years or even a lifetime.
Erosive gastritis is a type of gastritis that
often does not cause significant inflammation but can wear away the stomach
lining. Erosive gastritis can cause bleeding, erosions, or ulcers. Erosive
gastritis may be acute or chronic.
The relationship between gastritis and
symptoms is not clear. The term gastritis refers specifically to abnormal
inflammation in the stomach lining. People who have gastritis may experience
pain or discomfort in the upper abdomen, but many people with gastritis do not
have any symptoms.
The term gastritis is sometimes mistakenly
used to describe any symptoms of pain or discomfort in the upper abdomen. Many
diseases and disorders can cause these symptoms. Most people who have upper
abdominal symptoms do not have gastritis.
Ulcerative colitis (UC) is an inflammatory bowel disease. It causes irritation, inflammation, and ulcers in the lining of your large intestine (also called your colon). There's no cure, and people usually have symptoms off and on for life
Gastritis is a condition in which the stomach
lining—known as the mucosa—is inflamed. The stomach lining contains special
cells that produce acid and enzymes, which help break down food for digestion,
and mucus, which protects the stomach lining from acid. When the stomach lining
is inflamed, it produces less acid, enzymes, and mucus.
Gastritis may be acute or chronic. Sudden,
severe inflammation of the stomach lining is called acute gastritis. Inflammation
that lasts for a long time is called chronic gastritis. If chronic gastritis is
not treated, it may last for years or even a lifetime.
Erosive gastritis is a type of gastritis that
often does not cause significant inflammation but can wear away the stomach
lining. Erosive gastritis can cause bleeding, erosions, or ulcers. Erosive
gastritis may be acute or chronic.
The relationship between gastritis and
symptoms is not clear. The term gastritis refers specifically to abnormal
inflammation in the stomach lining. People who have gastritis may experience
pain or discomfort in the upper abdomen, but many people with gastritis do not
have any symptoms.
The term gastritis is sometimes mistakenly
used to describe any symptoms of pain or discomfort in the upper abdomen. Many
diseases and disorders can cause these symptoms. Most people who have upper
abdominal symptoms do not have gastritis.
Ulcerative colitis (UC) is an inflammatory bowel disease. It causes irritation, inflammation, and ulcers in the lining of your large intestine (also called your colon). There's no cure, and people usually have symptoms off and on for life
Intestinal obstruction is a significant or mechanical blockage of intestine that occurs when food or stool can not move through the intestine.
These obstruction may be complete or partial.
Acute kidney failure happens when your kidneys suddenly lose the ability to eliminate excess salts, fluids, and waste materials from the blood. Acute kidney failure is also called acute kidney injury or acute renal failure. It's common in people who are already in the hospital. It may develop rapidly over a few hours.
Cirrhosis is a late stage of scarring (fibrosis) of the liver caused by many forms of liver diseases and conditions, such as hepatitis and chronic alcoholism.
This is a presentation about gastrointestinal tract disorders concerning a medical informations about an important disorders that affect GIT of human being.
Gallstones are hardened deposits of bile that can form in your gallbladder. Bile is a digestive fluid produced in your liver and stored in your gallbladder. When you eat, your gallbladder contracts and empties bile into your small intestine (duodenum)
Nursing assessment and Management clients with Pancreatic disordersANILKUMAR BR
The pancreas, located in the upper abdomen, has endocrine as well as exocrine functions .
The secretion of pancreatic enzymes into the gastrointestinal tract through the pancreatic duct represents its exocrine function.
The secretion of insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin directly into the bloodstream represents its endocrine function.
Pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas) is a serious disorder. The most basic classification system used to describe or categorize the various stages and forms of pancreatitis divides the disorder into acute or chronic forms.
Acute pancreatitis can be a medical emergency associated with a high risk for life-threatening complications and mortality, whereas chronic pancreatitis often goes undetected until 80% to 90% of the exocrine and endocrine tissue is destroyed.
Acute pancreatitis does not usually lead to chronic pancreatitis unless complications develop.
Gallstones are hardened deposits of digestive fluid that can form in the gallbladder. The gallbladder is a small, pear-shaped organ on the right side of your abdomen, just beneath the liver. The gallbladder holds a digestive fluid called bile that's released into the small intestine.
Peptic ulcers are sores that develop in the lining of the stomach, lower esophagus, or small intestine. They're usually formed as a result of inflammation caused by the bacteria H. pylori, as well as from erosion from stomach acids. Peptic ulcers are a fairly common health problem.
This PPT contains all necessary detail about cholecystitis and its management and covers all aspects of this disease according to nursing point of view. Helpful for studetns.
Intestinal obstruction is a significant or mechanical blockage of intestine that occurs when food or stool can not move through the intestine.
These obstruction may be complete or partial.
Acute kidney failure happens when your kidneys suddenly lose the ability to eliminate excess salts, fluids, and waste materials from the blood. Acute kidney failure is also called acute kidney injury or acute renal failure. It's common in people who are already in the hospital. It may develop rapidly over a few hours.
Cirrhosis is a late stage of scarring (fibrosis) of the liver caused by many forms of liver diseases and conditions, such as hepatitis and chronic alcoholism.
This is a presentation about gastrointestinal tract disorders concerning a medical informations about an important disorders that affect GIT of human being.
Gallstones are hardened deposits of bile that can form in your gallbladder. Bile is a digestive fluid produced in your liver and stored in your gallbladder. When you eat, your gallbladder contracts and empties bile into your small intestine (duodenum)
Nursing assessment and Management clients with Pancreatic disordersANILKUMAR BR
The pancreas, located in the upper abdomen, has endocrine as well as exocrine functions .
The secretion of pancreatic enzymes into the gastrointestinal tract through the pancreatic duct represents its exocrine function.
The secretion of insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin directly into the bloodstream represents its endocrine function.
Pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas) is a serious disorder. The most basic classification system used to describe or categorize the various stages and forms of pancreatitis divides the disorder into acute or chronic forms.
Acute pancreatitis can be a medical emergency associated with a high risk for life-threatening complications and mortality, whereas chronic pancreatitis often goes undetected until 80% to 90% of the exocrine and endocrine tissue is destroyed.
Acute pancreatitis does not usually lead to chronic pancreatitis unless complications develop.
Gallstones are hardened deposits of digestive fluid that can form in the gallbladder. The gallbladder is a small, pear-shaped organ on the right side of your abdomen, just beneath the liver. The gallbladder holds a digestive fluid called bile that's released into the small intestine.
Peptic ulcers are sores that develop in the lining of the stomach, lower esophagus, or small intestine. They're usually formed as a result of inflammation caused by the bacteria H. pylori, as well as from erosion from stomach acids. Peptic ulcers are a fairly common health problem.
This PPT contains all necessary detail about cholecystitis and its management and covers all aspects of this disease according to nursing point of view. Helpful for studetns.
A Power Point Presentation on the Disease Rheumatoid Arthritis covering everything from explanation and history to causes, effects, treatments, diagnosis, and prognosis.
It include the definition , signs and symptoms, types, diagnosis, medical management, Nursing management, preventive measures, complication, Post exposure prophylaxis of Hepatitis.
Chronic Liver Disease in pediatric: a case presentation and discussionDr Abdalla M. Gamal
A presentation from a tutorial about an interesting case that came to the Pediatric Department of Sebha Medical Center and was imaged by the Radiology Department.
The tutorial was a joint effort between Dr Zeinab Salem Ali (from Pediatric Department) and me (from Radiology Department). In her slides, Dr Zeinab presented the case history, examination, investigations, differential diagnosis and discussed the clinical presentation, investigations and management for chronic liver diseases in pediatric patients.In my slides, I discussed the definition, etiology, natural history of this condition and explained the role of imaging in its diagnosis.
These are my slides after some modifications. I added an aknowlegement page to illustrate Dr Zeinab effort and to thank Dr Khaled Aljasem from Pediatric Department for his effort in revising the original presentations and the constructive feedback he provided which improved the quality of the presented material. Then I added a summary for the parts Dr Zeinab has presented to make this powerpoint presentation complete.
This presentation was presented by Dr Zeinab Salem (from Pediatric Department) and me in a joint tutorial between Pediatric Department and Radiology Department of Sebha Medical Center.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
3. Introduction
The liver is the largest gland in the body .It is situated in the
upper part of the abdominal cavity occupying the greater part
of the right hypochondriac region .
Liver supports almost every organ in the body and is vital for
survival. Because of its strategic location and
multidimensional functions, the liver is also prone to many
diseases.
6. Cirrhosis is a condition in which
the liver does not function properly
due to long-term damage. Typically,
the disease comes on slowly over
years.
INTRODUCTION
7. CAUSES
Alcoholic liver disease
Non alcoholic liver disease
Choric hepatitis C and B
Hepatotoxic drugs or toxins
Cystic fibrosis
Primary biliary cirrhosis
Primary sclerosing cholangitis
Autoimmune hepatitis
Wilson’s disease
Galactosemia
Glycogen storage disease type IV
8. commonly causes
Cirrhosis is most commonly caused
by
alcohol,
hepatitis B,
hepatitis C,
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.
Typically, more than two or three
drinks per day over a number of
years is required for cirrhosis to
occur.
9. Non-alcoholic fatty liver
disease is due to a number of
reasons, including
being overweight, diabetes,
high blood fats, and high
blood pressure
10. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
Cirrhosis has many possible manifestations. These signs
and symptoms may be either as a direct result of the
failure of liver cells or secondary to the resultant ;
Cirrhosis of the liver is slow and gradual in its development.
Weakness and loss of weight may be early symptom
11. Sign and symptoms have classified :
Liver dysfunction
Portal hypertension
Unestablished causes
Advanced disease
22. The liver plays a vital role in synthesis of proteins (for
example, albumin, clotting factors andcomplement),
detoxification, and storage (for example, vitamin A).
In addition, it participates in the metabolism
of lipids and carbohydrates.
Cirrhosis is often preceded by hepatitis and fatty liver
independent of the cause.
23. The pathological hallmark of cirrhosis is the development of
scar tissue that replaces normal parenchyma
.
This scar tissue blocks the portal flow of blood through the
organ therefore disturbing normal function.
Recent research shows the pivotal role of the Hepatic
stellate cell, a cell type that normally stores vitamin A, in the
development of cirrhosis.
24. In addition, it secretes TGF-β1, which leads to a fibrotic response
and proliferation of connective tissue.
Furthermore, it secretes TIMP 1 and 2, naturally occurring
inhibitors of matrix metallo proteinases, which prevents them
from breaking down fibrotic material in the extracellular matrix
The fibrous tissue bands (septa) separate hepatocyte nodules,
which eventually replace the entire liver , leading to decreased
blood flow throughout.
The spleen becomes congested, which leads to hypersplenism and
increased sequestration of platelets. Portal hypertension is
responsible for most severe complications of cirrhosis
30. MANGEMENT
Generally, liver damage from cirrhosis cannot be reversed,
but treatment could stop or delay further progression and
reduce complications.
Antibiotics are prescribed for infections, and various
medications can help with itching.
Laxatives, such as lactulose, decrease risk of constipation;
their role in preventing encephalopathy is limited.
31. Alcoholic cirrhosis caused by alcohol abuse is treated by
abstaining from alcohol.
Treatment for hepatitis-related cirrhosis involves medications
used to treat the different types of hepatitis,
such as interferon for viral hepatitis and corticosteroids
for autoimmune hepatitis.
Cirrhosis caused by Wilson's disease, in which copper builds up
in organs, is treated with chelation therapy
(for example, penicillamine) to remove the copper.
32. Preventing further liver damage
Vaccination of susceptible patients should be considered
for Hepatitis A and Hepatitis B.
Transplantation
Main article: Liver transplantation
Palliative care
34. HEPATITIS DISORDER
Hepatitis is a acute or chronic inflammation of the liver
and can be caused by a variety of different viruses,
chemical or drug reaction, or other disease.
Non – viral causes of hepatitis include autoimmune
hepatitis, Wilson disease, alpha1 – antitrypsin deficiency,
and steatohepatitis.
35. The following six viruses cause 90% of cases of viral
hepatitis.
Hepatitis A virus
Hepatitis B virus
Hepatitis C virus
Hepatitis D virus
Hepatitis E virus.
Hepatitis G virus.
36. Hepatitis A and E are responsible for most of the water –
borne (community acquired).
Hepatitis while B, C and D are responsible for post –
transfusion hepatitis.
Since a considerable number of cases of both post –
transfusion and community – acquired hepatitis are not
identified as being caused by hepatitis A – E, investigators
have sought to identify.
37. Other potentially hepatotropic viral agents, including
hepatitis G virus, TT virus and SEN virus.
Although each type of hepatitis is unique, assessment
findings and treatment have many similarities.
39. Hepatitis A is caused by infection with the hepatitis A
virus (HAV), a non enveloped RNA virus, first identified by
electron microscopy in 1973.
It is classified within the genus hepatovirus of the
picornavirus family. In humans, a single serotype of HAV
exists. HAV infection induces lifelong protection against
reinfection.
40. HAV is extremely resistant to degradation by
environmental conditions, a property that allows its
maintenance and spread within populations.
In developing countries with poor environmental
hygienic conditions, nearly all children are infected with
HAV before 9 – years of age.
41. It is spread via the fecal oral route through
contaminated food and water, and person – to – person
spread under poor sanitary conditions.
Infections occur early in life in area where HAV is
highly endemic.
42. INCUBATION PERIOD:
15 – 50 days (average 25 – 30 days) most contagious
1 – 2wk before symptoms onset at 28 – 30days.
TYPE/ETIOLOGY:
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) previously called infectious
hepatitis.
PERIOD OF COMMUNICABILITY:
Believed to be later half of incubation period to the
first week after the onset of clinical illness.
44. CLINICAL FEATURES
If you have this infection, you have inflammation in
your liver that's caused by a virus. You don't always get
symptoms, but when you do, you might have:
Jaundice (yellow eyes and skin, dark urine)
Pain in your belly
Loss of appetite
Nausea
Fever
Diarrhea
Fatigue
45. :
DIAGNOSIS
The diagnosis is based on the history (especially
regarding possible exposure to a hepatitis virus); physical
examination; and serologic markers (antibodies and
antigens).
The specific diagnosis of acute hepatitis A is made by
finding anti – HAV IgM in the serum of patients.
46. As IgG anti – HAV persists lifelong after acute infection,
detection of IgG anti – HAV alone indicates past infection
Laboratory evaluation of liver function includes
estimation of total and direct
Bilirubin,
transaminases,
alkaline phosphatises Prothrombin time,
total protein and albumin
47. PREVENTION OF SPREAD:
Hand washing
Gloves
Identifying infected food handlers
IMMUNE PROPHYLAXIS:
The administration of immunoglobin can reduce the
incidence of hepatitis A up to 90%, and it is most effective
if given before exposure.
48. ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION:
Inactivated HAV vaccines are available that are safe, highly
immunogenic and provide long – term protection from
infection.
The vaccine is highly effective and provides seroconversion
rates of more than 99% when given as a single primary
immunization, followed by a booster dose 6 months later.
Given as two injections at age 2 yr and 6 – 18 month later.
Only recommended for children with chronic liver disease or
haemophilia
50. TREATMENT
As no specific treatment exists, prevention is the most
effective approach against the disease
Therapy is supportive and is aimed at maintaining
adequate nutrition. There is no evidence to suggest that
restriction of fats has any beneficial effects on the course
of the disease.
Eggs, milk and butter may actually help provide a correct
caloric intake.
51. Antiviral agents have no role because the hepatic
injury appears to be immunopathologically mediated.
Referral to a liver transplant centre is appropriate for
patients with fulminant hepatitis A.
Temporary auxiliary liver transplantation for sub acute
liver failure may be a way to promote native liver
regeneration
54. Hepatitis B virus is a 3.2kb, circular, partially double
stranded DNA virus.
HBV contains four open reading frames, which encode
major structural and non-structural proteins for HBV.
HBV infection can occur as an acute or chronic infection
and may range from being asymptomatic and limited to
causing fatal fulminant (rapid and severe) hepatitis.
55. HBV varies greatly throughout the world.
High prevalence areas have been identified in Africa and
Asia; the United States is considered a low – prevalence
area.
INCUBATION PERIOD/PATHOGENESIS AND
NATURAL COURSE:
30 - 180days (average 50 - 90days).
Following a primary HBV infection, the host may run an
acute, fulminant or chronic course
56. TYPE/ETIOLOGY:
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) previously called serum
hepatitis.
PERIOD OF COMMUNICABILITY:
Variable, virus in blood or other body fluids during
late incubation period and acute stage of disease; may
persist in carrier state for years to lifetime.
57. MODE OF TRANSMISSION:
Principal route – parental
Less frequent route – oral, sexual, any body fluid
Perinatal transfer – transplacental blood (last trimester), at
delivery, or during breastfeeding, especially if mother has
cracked nipples.
58. CLINICAL FEATURES:
Onset – more insidious
Fever – less frequent
Anorexia – mild to moderate
Nausea and vomiting – sometimes presents
Rash – common
Arthralgia – common
Pruritus – sometimes presents
Jaundice – present
59. DIAGNOSIS:
History
Physical examination;
Serologic markers (antibodies and antigens) indicating
the presence of active infection with hepatitis A, B, or C
or previous infection. (Because the liver has a large
functional reserve abnormal laboratory tests may be the
only indication of hepatitis)
serum aspirate and alanine Aminotransferases
60. Serum Bilirubin levels
HAV immunoglobulin
(immunoglobin M [IgM]) antibody in
the serum.
The diagnosis of HCV is based on the
detection of anti – HCV antibodies
and confirmation by polymerase chain
reaction for hepatitis C RNA
An abdominal ultrasound
Liver biopsy
61. why should be done the HBV diagnosis test ?
HBV diagnosis depends on the presence of hepatitis B surface
antigen (HBsAg) or anti – HBV core (anti – HBc) IgM antibody,
chronic HBV infection is associated with the persistence of
HBsAg and HBV DNA markers.
63. ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION:
Vaccine 80% - 90% effective
Three injection at 0, 1 and 6 months
Recommended for all infants, children, and adolescents.
64. POSTEXPOSURE PROPHYLAXIS:
For neonates of infected mothers, give HB immune
globulin (HBIG) within 12 hr of birth followed by
vaccines
HBIG, 0.06 ml/kg, within 24hr of any Percutaneous
exposure
66. INTRODUCTION
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) was recognized in 1989 as a
major cause of non – A, non – B hepatitis.
HCV is an envelope, single – stranded, positive – sense
ribonucleic acid (RNA) virus, classified as an independent
genus (hepacivirus) within the flavivirus family.
67. INCUBATION PERIOD:
2 weeks – 6 months, average 6 – 7 weeks. The mean
incubation period of post – transfusion acute HCV infection
is 7 to 8 weeks, with range of 2 to 26 weeks.
TYPE/ETIOLOGY:
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is non – A, non – B hepatitis.
PERIOD OF COMMUNICABILITY:
Begins before onset of symptoms, may persist in carrier
state for years
70. CLINICAL FEATURES
Onset – usually insidious.
Fever – less frequent
Anorexia – mild to moderate
Nausea and vomiting – mild to moderate
Rash – sometimes present
Arthralgia – rare
Pruritus – sometimes presents
Jaundice – present
71. DIAGNOSIS:
History
Physical examination;
Serologic markers (antibodies and antigens) indicating the
presence of active infection with hepatitis A, B, or C or
previous infection. (Because the liver has a large functional
reserve abnormal laboratory tests may be the only
indication of hepatitis)
Serum Bilirubin
The detection of anti – HCV antibodies and confirmation
by polymerase chain reaction for hepatitis C RNA.
72. Nucleic acid tests directly detect circulating virus
An abdominal ultrasound provides
A liver biopsy aids
73. PREVENTION OF SPREAD:
Standard precautions
ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION:
None
POSTEXPOSURE PROPHYLAXIS:
Not currently recommended by centre for disease control
and prevention.
76. INTRODUCTION
Hepatitis D virus (HDV) was first detected as a new
nuclear antigen in the hepatocytes of patients infected with
hepatitis B virus (HBV) and was frequently associated
with severe acute or chronic hepatitis.
Transmission of HDV requires either co – infection with
HBV or super infection in individuals who are HBV
carriers.
77. INCUBATION PERIOD:
The incubation period is 2 to 8 weeks (21 to 90 days).
TYPE/ETIOLOGY:
Hepatitis Delta virus (HDV), occurs only in patients
with acute or chronic HBV infection.
MODE OF TRANSMISSION:
Blood and blood products
More common in Mediterranean countries and among IV
drug users and haemophiliacs.(Impair the body's ability to
control blood clotting, which is used to stop bleeding when a
blood vessel is broken.)
80. DIAGNOSIS:
History
Physical examination;
Serologic markers (antibodies and antigens) indicating
the presence of active infection with hepatitis A, B, or C
or previous infection. (Because the liver has a large
functional reserve abnormal laboratory tests may be the
only indication of hepatitis)
Serum Bilirubin levels peak 5 to 10 days
81. Testing for HDV infection is recommended in children
with chronic HBV infection in severe liver disease and
in children with acute exacerbation of a previously stable
liver disease
Although serum aspirate and alanine Aminotransferases
(AST and ALT) levels are markedly elevated in viral
hepatitis, other disease or conditions may cause their
elevation
82. PREVENTION OF SPREAD:
Sterilization of needles
Blood precautions
Gloves.
ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION:
Protecting from HBV will protect because HDV cannot
exist alone.
83. POSTEXPOSURE PROPHYLAXIS:
Hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) is used in the post –
exposure prophylaxis of newborns of HBV infected
women.
It is administered IM and may be given concurrently with
HBV vaccine, at a different site.
The dose for infants is 0.5ml.
Combination of HBIG and HBV vaccination in infants
born to HBsAg positive mothers prevents transmission in
approximately 95% of those at risk.
85. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) was first described in
1978 after an epidemic affecting 52,000
individuals in Kashmir.
Hepatitis E is caused by infection with the
hepatitis E virus (HEV), a single – standard RNA
virus.
86. It is usually transmitted through contaminated
drinking water. Hepatitis E virus causes acute
sporadic( isolated). and epidemic viral hepatitis.
Symptomatic HEV infection is most common in
young adult aged 15 – 40 years and is uncommon in
children since it is mostly asymptomatic and anicteric
87. INCUBATION PERIOD:
The incubation period is 3 to 8 weeks (15 to 60 days)
average 40 days.
TYPE/ETIOLOGY:
Hepatitis E virus (HEV), enteric ally transmitted
non – A, non – B hepatitis.
MODE OF TRANSMISSION:
Fecal – oral, more common in adults
88. CLINICAL FEATURES
The clinical features of HEV are similar to HAV infection.
The severity of an HEV infection is generally greater than
the severity of an HAV infection.
In pregnant women, the disease is particularly severe
where mortality approaches 20% with infections in the
third trimester. Premature deliveries with high infant
mortality up to 33% are observed.
89. DIAGNOSIS:
Laboratory evaluation of HEV is similar to that of
HAV
History
Physical examination;
Serologic markers (antibodies and antigens) indicating
the presence of active infection with hepatitis A, B, or C
or previous infection. (Because the liver has a large
functional reserve abnormal laboratory tests may be the
only indication of hepatitis)
Serum Bilirubin
90. IgM anti – HEV titer declines rapidly during early
convalescence, while IgG anti – HEV persist for long
duration and provides protection aganist subsequent
infection
91. PREVENTION OF SPREAD:
Standard precautions
VACCINES:
Hepatitis E is preventable by vaccination. Studies in Nepal
and China had shown 95% efficacy of a recombinant
genotype 1 HEV vaccine in preventing infection and
clinical disease
POSTEXPOSURE PROPHYLAXIS:
genotype 1 HEV vaccine in preventing infection and
clinical disease
92. PREVENTION:
As with HAV good personal hygiene, high quality standards
for public water supplies and proper disposal of waste
have resulted in a low prevalence of HEV infection in
developed countries.
TREATMENT:
As no specific therapy is capable of altering the course
of acute hepatitis E infection, prevention is the most effective
approach against the disease. (immunosuppressive therapy
Antiviral therapy )
94. INTRODUCTION
GB virus C (GBV-C), formerly known as hepatitis G
virus (HGV), is a virus in the Flaviviridae family which
has not yet been assigned to a genus, is known to infect
humans, but is not known to cause human disease.
There have been reports that HIV patients co-infected with
GBV-C can survive longer than those without GBV-C, but
the patients may be different in other ways.
95. Hepatitis G virus and GB virus C (GBV-C) are RNA
viruses that were independently identified in 1995, and
were subsequently found to be two isolates of the same
virus.
Hepatitis G virus (HGV) is a blood – born virus that may
also be transmitted by organ transplantation.
High risk groups include transfusion recipients, IV drug
users, and individuals infected with HCV. Individuals with
the virus are often asymptomatic, and most infections are
chronic.
96. INCUBATION PERIOD
The incubation period is unknown
TYPE/ETIOLOGY
Hepatitis E virus (HEV), enteric ally transmitted
non – A, non – B hepatitis.
MODE OF TRANSMISSION
Parenteral, sexual and vertical transmission of GBV-C has
all been documented, and because of shared modes of
transmission, individuals infected with HIV are commonly
co-infected with GBV-C.
Among people with HIV infection, the prevalence of
GBV-C viraemia ranges from 14 to 43%
97.
98. Laboratory evaluation of HEV is similar to that of
HAV
History
Physical examination;
Serologic markers (antibodies and antigens) indicating
the presence of active infection with hepatitis A, B, or C
or previous infection. (Because the liver has a large
functional reserve abnormal laboratory tests may be the
only indication of hepatitis)
Serum Bilirubin
99. An abdominal ultrasound.
Finally, a liver biopsy aids in assessing the severity of
the disease.
102. Treatment options for viral hepatitis are limited.
The goals of management include early detection,
recognition of chronic liver disease, support and
monitoring, and prevention of spread of the disease.
HBV and HCV treatment is directed at managing the viral
load to prevent further with interferon’s, naturally
occurring proteins that exert antiviral, antiproliferative,
and immunomodilatory effects.
103. Lamivudine and adefovir are two other interferon analogs
that suppress the replication of HBV.
A combination of alpha – interferon and ribavirin has
resulted in a sustained response in only 50% of patients
with HBV and HCV
Another important aspect of the therapeutic management
of hepatitis involves hospitalization
Hospitalization is necessary if coagulopathy or fulminant
hepatitis is present.
104. A recent interferon formulation, pegylated interferon, can
be administered once a week and has been found to
sustain plasma levels and enhance viral suppression
HAV infection is an acute disease that resolves with
support and management of symptoms.
106. Proper hand washing and standard isolation precautions can
prevent the spread of hepatitis.
Prophylactic use of standard immune globulin (Ig) is
effective in preventing HAV infection in situations of pre
exposure (e.g., anticipated travel to areas where HAV is
prevalent) or in situations of post exposure during the early
part of the incubation period.
Hepatitis B immune globulin (HBIg) is effective in
preventing HBV infection after exposure.
107. Ig and HBIg must be administered less than 2 weeks after
exposure.
Vaccines have been developed to prevent HAV and HBV
infection.
HBV vaccination is recommended for all newborns and
for high – risk groups.
HAV is also recommended for high – risk groups.
Active immunizations are not available against HCV.
It is possible to prevent HDV infection by preventing
HBV infection
109. If further assistance is needed for parents to comply
with therapy, a public health nursing referral may
necessary.
A well – balanced diet and a realistic schedule of rest
and activity adjusted to the child’s condition are
encouraged.
HAV is not infectious within a week after the onset of
jaundice, and children may feel well enough to
resume school.
110. Hand washing is the single most critical measure in
reducing risk of transmission.
The nurse should explain to parents and children the ways
in which HAV (oral – fecal route) and HBV (parenteral
route) are spread.
Nursing caring for young people with HBV infection and
a known or suspected history of illicit drug use should
help these teens realize the dangers of drug abuse.
111. Nurses should stress the parenteral mode of transmission
of hepatitis and encourage them to seek counselling
through a drug program..
Many communities have multidisciplinary clinics
dedicated to the management of these diseases.
113. Assessment:
The nursing history may identify a source of infection.
In children, flu – like symptoms of fever, anorexia,
fatigue, and nausea may be the only symptoms of viral
hepatitis.
Abdominal assessment may disclose right upper quadrant
tenderness and hepatomegaly.
Stools will be pale and clay – colored, and urine may be
dark and frothy.
114. Jaundice, if present, is best assessed in sclera, nail beds,
and mucous membranes and usually follows a
cephalocaudal progression.
In HBV infection, arthralgia may be the presenting
complaint.
Fulminant hepatitis will likely manifest as acute hepatic
failure with associated encephalopathy, bleeding, fluid
retention, ascites, and an icteric appearance.
115. Nursing Diagnosis and Planning
The following nursing diagnosis and expected
outcomes may be appropriate after assessing the child
with viral hepatitis and the child’s family:
Imbalanced nutrition: less than body requirements
related to anorexia
Expected outcomes: the child will tolerate an age
appropriate diet without weight loss, vomiting, or
abdominal pain and will return to a normal activity level.
Risk for infection related to exposure of family members
to infectious agents.
116. Expected outcomes: the child will return to pre – illness
weight and activity level.
Deficient knowledge related to incomplete information
about home care and long – term prognosis
Expected outcomes: the parents will verbalize a basic
understanding of hepatitis and the importance of treatment
and prevention.
117. Expected outcomes: the family will practice good
hand washing and other necessary isolation procedures
and will remain free from infection.
Risk for injury related to fulminant hepatitis
118. Interventions
Unless fulminant hepatitis develops, children are usually
treated at home, so parental education is crucial.
Teaching parents the importance of a nutritious, low – fat
diet as tolerated by the child, rest, and general supportive
care are important.
The child with hepatitis is often anorexia.
Several small meals and snacks throughout the day are
better tolerated than regular portions at mealtime.
119. Fatigue and malaise can last for several weeks.
Adequate rest and sleep are important for recovery,
because HAV is not infectious within 1 week after the
onset of jaundice, the child may return to school at that
time if well enough.
120. Child and Parent Teaching
Teach the parents the danger that could indicate a
worsening of the child’s condition – specifically, changes
in neurologic status, bleeding, and fluid retention.
Jaundice may worsen before it resolves, and parents
should be prepared for this possibility.
Also, teach parents not to give their child any over – the –
counter medications, because impaired liver function may
result in inadequate metabolism and excretion of the
medication.
121. Caution adolescents not to drink alcohol during the illness
or recovery period.
Preventing the spread of infection is an essential
intervention for HAV.
Prevention should include the use of contact precaution
for at least 1 week after the onset of jaundice and excellent
hand washing.
Hand washing is the most important preventive measure.
Teach family members to institute appropriate precautions
and to clean exposed household surface with bleach.
122. Diapers should not be changed on or near surfaces used
for preparing or serving food.
Explain to family members the ways in which HAV (fecal
– oral route) and HBV (parenteral route) are spread to
others.
Provide education about the recommendations concerning
hepatitis A and hepatitis B vaccination
If the child has HBV infection, especially neonatal HBV,
prepare the parentns for the possibility of a chronic carrier
state and the development of cirrhosis and hepatocellular
cancer in later years.
123. Home care:
Children with hepatitis are almost always managed at home
.
Nursing interventions include teaching parents hand – washing
skills, the use of gloves, and disinfection of contaminated surfaces
and articles.
Parents should be taught to monitor for complications, provide a
well balanced, low – fat diet, and monitor other family members for
infection.
All children in the family should be immunized against hepatitis.
125. Definition –
Fulminant hepatic failure (FHF)
or acute liver failure (ALF) is
defined as the rapid development of
acute liver injury with severe
impairment of the synthetic
function
and hepatic encephalopathy in a
patient without previous liver
disease.
126. Altered mental status with
coagulopathy in setting of acute
liver disease.
Hepatic encephalopathy
occurring within 8 weeks of
onset of illness defines FHF
128. Viral hepatitis
Hepatitis A - rarely
Hepatitis B - appx 1% of hep B
Hep C -- probably not, but ??
Hep D -- delta agent coinfects with Hep B
Hep E
CMV, HSV
130. Drugs
Acetaminophen
Acetaminophen in Tx doses with alcohol
Idiosyncratic reaction -- halothane, sulfonamides,
phenytoin, and others.
Vascular
Heart failure -- centrolobular necrosis
Sinusoidal obstruction secondary to metastatic dz
Budd Chiari
Veno-occlusive disease
131. Clinical Presentation
Typically -- nonspecific symptoms, nausea, jaundice,
altered mental status, coma -- all over a few days.
The altered mental status occasionally precedes clinical
jaundice.
Mental status changes often start with agitation, delusions,
irritability before progressing to lethargy, stupor, and
coma.
132.
133. Treatment
Prevent hypotension
Lactulose -- although not shown to work well in FHF
and felt to be less effective than in chronic liver disease.
Branch chain amino acids -- theoretically appealing but
studies are mixed results -- most authors feel they are not
helpful.
Mannitol -- shown to be effective in improving outcome
134. Hyperventilation -- probably useful for acute spikes in
ICP. Has not been shown to be effective in hepatic failure.
Concerns about effect on cerebral perfusion warrant
consideration.
Elevation of head -- ?? What is effect on CPP? Keep
head midline, perhaps 20 - 30 degrees of elevation.
Pentobarbital coma, hypothermia -- unproven,
occasionally may be indicated.
Steroids -- no good, may worsen outcome
135. Management
Avoid bleeding
GI prophylaxis
Avoid nasal intubation
Beware with surgical procedures, line placement, etc.
FFP -- Not shown to be effective in changing bleeding risk (?).
Most authors discourage routine attempts at normalizing PT.
Use for active bleeding and procedures.
Antifibrinolytics (Amicar) may be considered if bleeding and
primary fibrinolysis is occurring. Caution with DIC.
Maintain platelet count >50K, or 100K if bleeding
136. PICO
Lipid profile and cardiovascular risk factors in pediatric liver transplant recipients.
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases induce long-term morbidity and mortality of adult LT recipients. The
aim of this retrospective study was to assess CVRF, lipid abnormalities, and atherosclerosis
(appraised by c-IMT), more than 10 yr after pediatric LT. Thirty-one children who underwent
LT between December 1990 and December 2000 were included. Median age at LT was 14
months (range 4-64), and median follow-up after LT was 11.9 yr (range 9.0-17.3). In our
cohort, obesity (9.7%) and treated hypertension (9.7%) were rare. None of the patients was
smoker or diabetic. High TC and TG were both observed in 6.5% of the patients. The mean c-
IMT for male patients was 1.22 ± 1.55 and 1.58 ± 1.23 mm in female patients. Seven patients
(22%) had a mean c-IMT above +2 s.d. Values below the 5th percentile were noted for LDL-
cholesterol (58.1%), HDL-cholesterol (25.8%), apolipoprotein B (40%), and apolipoprotein A1
(20%). LDL-cholesterol and apolipoprotein B levels were significantly lower in patients
treated by tacrolimus in comparison with CsA (p < 0.05). In conclusion, our results suggest
that pediatric LT patients do not present significant CVRF; moreover, instead of
hyperlipidemia, hypocholesterolemia (LDL-C) is frequent and immunosuppressive therapy is
probably the cause.
137. P I C O
Cardiovascular dise
ases retrospective study
- pediatric LT
patients do not
present significant
CVRF; moreover,
instead of
hyperlipidemia,
hypocholesterolemi
a (LDL-C) is
frequent and
immunosuppressive
therapy is probably
the cause
138. BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Dutta Parul. Pediatric nursing. 2nd ed. New Delhi: Jaypee
brother medical publishers.
Marlow.R Dorothy, Redding.A Barbara. Text book of pediatric
nursing. 6th ed. Philadelphia, Pennsylynia : Elsevier
publication; 2009.
WEB SITE
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirrhosis
http://www.stlouischildrens.org/diseases-conditions/liver-
disease
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26750745