Basic pharmacology and Pharmacokinetics principles and concepts covering routes of drug administration, absorption phenomena, metabolism and excretion from the body.
Pharmacokinetics - drug absorption, drug distribution, drug metabolism, drug ...http://neigrihms.gov.in/
A power point presentation on general aspects of Pharmacokinetics suitable for undergraduate medical students beginning to study Pharmacology. Also suitable for Post Graduate students of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences.
Pharmacokinetics - drug absorption, drug distribution, drug metabolism, drug ...http://neigrihms.gov.in/
A power point presentation on general aspects of Pharmacokinetics suitable for undergraduate medical students beginning to study Pharmacology. Also suitable for Post Graduate students of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences.
The slides describe concept of distribution, Volume of distribution, factors affecting volume of distribution and the barriers to distribution. Blood brain barrier and placental barrier.
Pharmacokinetics is the study of the movement of drug molecules in the body. It includes absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs. Pharmacokinetics is the study of what happens to drugs once they enter the body (the movement of the drugs into, within, and out of the body). For a drug to produce its specific response, it should be present in adequate concentrations at the site of action. This depends on various factors apart from the dose.
Four pharmacokinetic properties determine the onset, intensity, and the duration of drug action (Figure 1.6.1):
• Absorption: First, absorption from the site of administration permits entry of the drug (either directly or indirectly) into plasma.
• Distribution: Second, the drug may then reversibly leave the bloodstream and distribute it into the interstitial and intracellular fluids.
• Metabolism: Third, the drug may be biotransformed by metabolism by the liver or other tissues.
• Elimination: Finally, the drug and its metabolites are eliminated from the body in urine, bile, or feces.
In short, pharmacokinetics means what the body does to the drug.
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An overview of Bio/Mucoadhesive drug delivery system covering various aspects like advantages, approaches, mechanism of mucoadhesion, various theories, various testing methods and examples of marketed preparations.
The slides describe concept of distribution, Volume of distribution, factors affecting volume of distribution and the barriers to distribution. Blood brain barrier and placental barrier.
Pharmacokinetics is the study of the movement of drug molecules in the body. It includes absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs. Pharmacokinetics is the study of what happens to drugs once they enter the body (the movement of the drugs into, within, and out of the body). For a drug to produce its specific response, it should be present in adequate concentrations at the site of action. This depends on various factors apart from the dose.
Four pharmacokinetic properties determine the onset, intensity, and the duration of drug action (Figure 1.6.1):
• Absorption: First, absorption from the site of administration permits entry of the drug (either directly or indirectly) into plasma.
• Distribution: Second, the drug may then reversibly leave the bloodstream and distribute it into the interstitial and intracellular fluids.
• Metabolism: Third, the drug may be biotransformed by metabolism by the liver or other tissues.
• Elimination: Finally, the drug and its metabolites are eliminated from the body in urine, bile, or feces.
In short, pharmacokinetics means what the body does to the drug.
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An overview of Bio/Mucoadhesive drug delivery system covering various aspects like advantages, approaches, mechanism of mucoadhesion, various theories, various testing methods and examples of marketed preparations.
Pharmacology is study of the substances which interact with living system by activating or inhibiting normal body processes. It includes physical and chemical properties, biochemical and physiological effects, mechanism of action, therapeutic uses and adverse effects of drugs.
Contents :
Introduction to pharmacology
General features of pharmacology
Clinical trials
Metabolism of drugs
Kinetics
Enzyme inducers and inhibitors
Drug distribution and clearance
Route of administration
Therapeutic index
Prodrug
Bioavailability and first pass metabolism
Agonist, antagonist and inverse agonist
Excretion of drug
Drug binding
Transport of drug
Pharmacogenetics
Drug and food
Immunomodulators
General features of immunomodulators
Cyclosporine and tacrolimus
Levamizole
Mycophenolate mofetil
Imiqumod
Thalidomide
Anti TNF alpha drugs
Monoclonal antibodies
Autacoids
General features of autacoids
NSAIDs
Prostaglandins
Leukotrienes
Thromboxane
Antihistaminic drugs
Drugs acting on 5ht
Colchicine
Adverse reactions
Antibiotic therapy
General features of antibiotic therapy
Betalactams
Penicillin
Cephalosporins
Aminoglycosides
Linezolid
Macrolide antibiotics
Glycopeptides antibiotics
Chloramphenicol
Sulfonamides
Tetracycline derivatives
Quinolones
Antifungal drugs
Antiviral drugs
Antiprotozoal drugs
Anti helminthic drugs
Anticancer drugs
General features of anticancer drugs
Methotrexate
Cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide
5-fluorouracil
Bleomycin
Vincristine and vinblastine
Paclitaxel
Actinomycin D
6-Mercaptopurine
Doxorubicin
Cisplatin
Autonomous nervous system
General features of autonomic nervous system
Cholinergic drugs
Anticholinergic drugs
Adrenergic drugs
Adrenergic blocking agents
For more details, visit www.medpgnotes.com
You can send your queries to medpgnotes@gmail.com
General description about various types of receptor, their classification, mechanism of action and its clinical significance, along with recent advances.
Pharmacology: Class Session 1 and 2 Introduction to PharmacologyMariaJose2001
This is an outline of the basics of Pharmacology. A discussion of how drugs are named, classified and its effects on the person's biochemical processes. It also included the factors influencing drug action and potential drug interactions. At the end, some commonly ysed terminologies were defined.
Basic knowledge about Pharmacology which will be helpful in Academic and for GPAT exam. Brief description about Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamic, clinical trials and some important definitions. Different types of drug administration.
Pharmacokinetics (PK) is the study of how the body interacts with administered substances for the entire duration of exposure (medications for the sake of this article). This is closely related to but distinctly different from pharmacodynamics, which examines the drug’s effect on the body more closely. The four main parameters generally examined by this field include absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME). Wielding an understanding of these processes allows practitioners the flexibility to prescribe and administer medications that will provide the greatest benefit at the lowest risk and allow them to make adjustments as necessary, given the varied physiology and lifestyles of patients.
When a provider prescribes medication, it is with the ultimate goal of a therapeutic outcome while minimizing adverse reactions. A thorough understanding of pharmacokinetics is essential in building treatment plans involving medications. Pharmacokinetics, as a field, attempts to summarize the movement of drugs throughout the body and the actions of the body on the drug. By using the above terms, theories, and equations, practitioners can better estimate the locations and concentrations of a drug in different areas of the body.
The appropriate concentration needed to obtain the desired effect and the amount needed for a higher chance of adverse reactions is determined through laboratory testing. Using the equations given above, a clinician can easily estimate safe medication dosing over a period of time and how long it will take for a medication to leave a patient’s system. These are, however, statistically-based estimations, influenced by differences in the drug dosage form and patient pathophysiology. This is why a deep understanding of these concepts is essential in medical practice so that improvisation is possible when the clinical situation requires it.
Factors affecting each of the proceses- Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Elimination of Drugs and associated Pharmacokinetic Parameters- Bioavailability, Volume of Distribution, Half life of drug, Rate of Clearance
Pharmacokinetics of Drug_Pharmacology Course_Muhammad Kamal Hossain.pptxMuhammad Kamal Hossain
Pharmacokinetics is defined as the kinetics of drug absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) and their relationship with the pharmacological, therapeutic or toxicological response in man and animals.
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamic- General Pharmacology Ravinandan A PRavinandan A P
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamic- General Pharmacology Ravinandan A P - 2. Delivered a guest lecturer on “Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics” in Continuing Medical Education (CME) program, organized by Taluk Doctor’s Association Chalkere Taluk, Chitradurga District, Karnataka on 28th Sep 2010.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
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An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
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MARUTI SUZUKI- A Successful Joint Venture in India.pptx
General pharmacology and pharmocokinetics
1. Leading the way of future Learning
Topic :
Basic Pharmacology
All copyrights reserved @pharmatoppers.com
Presented by
Swapnil Singh
GPAT (AIR 04) NIPER (AIR 03)
3. Definition
Pharmacology (P’cology) is the science of drugs
Oswald Schmiedeberg regarded as the “father of pharmacology”
Divided in several branches like
Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacodynamics
Pharmacotherapeutics
Chemotherapy and toxicology etc.
The two main division for our study are Pharmacodynamics and
Pharmacokinetics
6. R.O.A., Some IMP. Points
Contd…
Local Routes:
Very low or no systemic absorption
Systemic Routes:
Oral: Safer and Economical, some drugs are ineffective because of High first Pass Metabolism
(eg. nitrates, lignocaine, propranolol, ), Degradation (Insulin, penicillin G)
Sublingual: Avoids First Pass Metabolism , Used in Emergencies, Only lipid soluble and non
irritating drugs
(eg. of drugs administered by this route Nitroglycerine, isosorbidedinitrate etc.)
Transdermal: Only for drugs Highly lipid soluble
Nasal: eg. Nafarelin (GnRH agonist), calcitonin and desmopressin
Inhalational: Rate of drug delivery can be controlled like I.V. Infusion, antiasthmatic and
inhalational anaesthetic agents
Rectal: Avoids first pass metabolism upto 50% (Diazepam in febrile seizures)
Intravenous: Bolus(Dose injected at once) or Infusion(Continuous delivery over a period of
time)
Intradermal: Through Bleb, Vaccines
7. PHARMACOKINETICS
ADME study: Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion
ABSORPTION:
Drug
Ionised form
Water soluble
Cant cross
biological
membrane
Un-ionised
form
Lipid soluble
Cross
biological
membrane
8. 1. Absorption contd…
So, for absorption of drug from biological membrane it should be
present in unionised lipid soluble form
Ionisation depends on pH of surrounding medium and pKa of drug
Lets make it simple, ABSORPTION WILL OCCUR WHEN MEDIUM IS
SAME,
Means acidic drugs will remain unionised in acidic environment and
get absorbed while basic drugs will remain unionised in basic
environment and get absorbed
Ionisation of a drug is neither 100% nor 0% (Weak acids or bases),
therefore a drug should never be 100% lipid or water soluble
9. Absorption (contd…)
pH-pka relationship
pka is the pH at which drug is 50% ionised and 50% unionised
Acidic drug will remain unionised in acidic medium but will ionise in basic medium and basic
drug will remain unionised in basic medium and ionise in acidic medium
Suppose an acidic drug having pKa of 4 was placed in pH 4, it will be 50 % ionised and 50%
unionised, NOW same drug is kept in medium of pH 3 (acidic), it remains lipid soluble. But, if
it is kept in pH 2 what will happen, obviously it becomes more lipid soluble because more of
the drug is un-ionised, But Numerically HOW MUCH???
Concepts:
If the pH of the medium is less than pKa (Medium becomes acidic)
For Acidic drugs, unionised form increases and ionised form decreases
For Basic drugs, ionised form increases and unionised form decreases
If the pH of the medium is more than pKa (Medium becomes basic), opposite happens
10. Ionised or Unionised fraction depends upon difference (d, only magnitude)
between pH and pKa
When pH=pKa, d=0, 50% ionised 50% unionised
When pH-pKa=1, d=1, one form is 90% and other is 10%
When pH-pKa=2, d=2, one form is 99% and other is 1%
When pH-pKa=3, d=3, one form is 99.9% and other form is 0.1%
Example: (Acidic drug, pKa=3)
Absorption (contd…)
pH of medium (pH-pKa) Ionised from % Unionised form %
3.0 0 50 50
4.0 1 90 10
5.0 2 99 1
6.0 3 99.9 0.1
11. Bioavailability
Fraction of administered drug that reaches into the systemic circulation in the
unchanged form
By IV route it is 100%
Presystemic or first pass metabolism
12. Bioavail. (contd…)
Fig. Plot between plasma conc. and time to
calculate bioavailability
• It can be calculated by
comparing AUC (Area under
the curve) for I.V. route and
for the desired route or can
also be calculated by
comparing excretion in urine
• AUC tells about extent of
absorption
• Tmax tells about rate of
absorption
• Cmax is max conc. obtained
in plasma
• Bioequivalence = ±20%
bioavailability
𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐴𝑈𝐶𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 ∗ 𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 ∗ 100 ÷ (𝐴𝑈𝐶 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 ∗ 𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡)
MEC: Min. effective conc.,
MTC: Max therapeutic conc.
13. 2. Distribution
After drug reaches to the blood it is distributed to many tissues, which is
determined by a hypothetical parameter Volume of Distribution (Vd)
It is the volume that would be required to contain the administered dose if
that dose was evenly distributed at the at the conc. measured in plasma
Higher Vd means more amount of drug was entering in tissue
Depends on lipid solubility and protein binding
Lipid soluble drug crosses blood vessel easily and thus have high Vd
If a drug is highly bound to plasma protein it behaves like a large molecule and unable to
cross the blood vessel, thus goes less into the circulation and have low Vd
Only free form (not bound to plasma protein) of drug is responsible for action
as well as metabolism of a drug. Thus, Plasma protein binding makes drug long
acting by reducing its metabolism
14. Distribution (contd…)
Volume of distribution (Vd):
𝑉𝑑 =
𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐼.𝑉.
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑚𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐.(𝐶𝑜)
Measure of the distribution of the drug, more Vd means more
amount of drug is in tissue and less is in plasma
Vd is the main determinant of Loading Dose
Chloroquine is the drug with highest Vd (1300l/kg)
15. Total Body
Water (42 L)
Extracellular
Fluid (14 L)
Plasma (3 L)
Interstitial
Fluid (11 L)
Intracellular
fluid (28 L)
16. Distribution (Contd…)
After a drug reaches plasma there are four possibilities:
Ionisation
Molecular
Weight
Description Vd
Highly ionised
(Water soluble)
High
Not able to cross blood
vessel
Low (around 3 L, Vol. of plasma)
Highly ionised Low
Some of it can reach
interstitial fluid
Around 14 L (Vol. of plasma + Vol.
of Interstitial fluid)
Un-ionised (lipid
soluble)
Low Enter in cell also High 42 (plasma+ISF+ICF)
Un-ionised Low High affinity for tissues
Vd even greater than total body
water (>42 L)
17. 3. Metabolism (Biotransformation)
Chemical alteration of the drug in the body
Needed to render the nonpolar (lipid soluble) compounds into polar
(lipid-insoluble) to excrete them outside the body
Primary site is liver, others are kidney, intestine lungs and plasma
Biotransformation of drug may lead to following three events:
1. Inactivation
Most drugs render inactive or less active metabolites
2. Active metabolite from an active drug
Many drugs are partially converted to one or more active metabolites;
19. Metabolism (Contd…)
3. Activation of inactive drug
Prodrug concept
Prodrug Active form
Levodopa Dopamine
Enalapril Enalaprilat
Dipivefrine Epinephrine
Proguanil Cycloguanil
Prednisone Prednisolone
Bacampicillin Amoxicillin
Sulfasalazine 5-Aminosalicylic acid
20. Metabolism (Contd…)
Biotransformation reactions are of two types:
1. Nonsynthetic/Phase I/Functionalisation reactions:
Functional group is generated or exposed
Metabolite may be active or inactive
Major reactions involved are:
Oxidation (Major), Reduction, Hydrolysis, Cyclisation, De-cyclisation
2. Synthetic reaction/Phase II
Conjugation by endogenous substrate to form a highly polar water soluble compound which
is easily excreted
Major reactions involved are:
Glucuronide conjugation (Major), Acetylation, Methylation, sulphate, glycine, or glutathione
conjugation
21. Metabolism (Contd…)
Metabolism may occur with the help of:
Microsomal enzyme: present in smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Ex; monooxygenases, cytochrome P450, and glucoronyl transferases
May be induced or inhibited by other drug
Non microsomal enzyme: present in cytoplasm and mitochondria
Ex; flavoprotein oxidases, esterases, amidases and conjugases
Not inducible by other drugs but shows genetic polymorphism
22. Metabolism (Contd…)
Drug metabolising by microsomal enzyme is called as substrate and
chemical increasing or decreasing that enzyme is called as inducer
or inhibitor respectively
Enzyme
inducer
Increase
metabolism
Decrease
effect
Dose should
be increased
Tolerance
23. Enzyme Inducers
Enzyme inducer
G Griseofulvin
P Phenytoin
R Rifampicin
S Smoking
Cell Carbamazepine
Phone Phenobarbitone
26. Cytochrome P-450
450 denotes their strong absorbance at 450 nm
Superfamily of microsomes
CYP3A4 is involved in metabolism of 50% drugs
Root word
Family Sub-family
Gene number
CYP3A4
Nomenclature
27. Hoffman elimination
Inactivation of the drug in the body fluids by spontaneous
molecular rearrangement without the agency of any enyme,
eg; Atracurium
28. 4. Excretion
Passage out of systemically absorbed drug
Major route is kidney; involves glomerular filtration, tubular
reabsorption and tubular secretion
1. Glomerular filtration: Depends on plasma protein binding and renal
blood flow. Does not depends upon lipid solubility because all substances
crosses the fenestrated glomerular membrane
2. Tubular reabsorption: Depends on lipid solubility
Lipid solubility depends on ionisation, ionised drug will be excreted
More lipid
soluble
More
reabsorbed
Less
excretion
30. Excretion (contd…)
3. Tubular secretion: Does not depend on lipid solubility or plasma protein
binding.
Separate pump for acidic and basic drugs are present in nephron; drug
utilising same pump may show drug interaction; eg. Probenecid decreases
excretion of penicillin
31. Kinetics of elimination
Pharmacokinetics model may be one or two compartment
One compartment Model:
Drug having less or no distribution in tissues, elimination is
continuous and the log plasma conc. vs time curve is linear (frst
order kinetics)
Metabolism Excretion Elimination
32. One compartment model
Logscale
Slope of this curve is –k (rate constant)
Clearance = k * Vd
k = 0.693/t1/2
Co
Extrapolation of this curve on y-axis is Co used to
calculate Vd
Vd= Dose/Co
33. Some imp formula
Renal clearance:
Renal cl.= uv/p
Total body clearance = rate of elimination/p
u = urine conc. of drug
v = rate of urine flow
p = plasma drug conc.
34. Order of kinetics
Drug may follow zero or first order kinetics
Rate of elimination α (plasma conc.)order
For zero order kinetics, (plasma conc.)0 is equal to one, it means
rate of elimination is independent of plasma conc. or it is constant
For first order kinetics rate of elimination is proportional to plasma
conc.
35. First order kinetics (linear) Zero order kinetics (Non linear)
Constant fraction of drug is eliminated per
unit time
Constant amount of drug is eliminated per
unit time
ROE proportional to Co ROE independent of Co
Clearance (Cl) remains const. Cl is more at low conc. and less at high conc.
Half life (T1/2)remains const. T1/2 less at low conc. and more at high conc.
Most drugs follow first order kinetics Very few drugs eg; Alcohol
36. Half life (t1/2)
Time required to reduce the plasma conc. half to its original value
It is a secondary P’kinetic parameter derived from two primary
P’kinetic parameter Vd and clearance (Cl)
Determines dosing interval and time required to reach steady state
conc.
Does not affect dose of the drug
t1/2 = (0.693 * Vd)/Cl
37. References
Garg GR, Gupta S. Review of Pharmacology, sixth edition, 2012,
Jaypee publishers, New Delhi
Tripathi KD. Essentials of medical pharmacology, sixth edition,
2008, Jaypee publishers, New Delhi
38. Leading the way of future Learning
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