This document discusses plant galls, which are abnormal growths on plants induced by various organisms like insects, mites, and fungi. It begins by defining galls and describing their formation mechanisms. It then covers the different types of galls based on location, structure, and forming organism. Major sections classify the different insect orders and families that cause galls, like gall midges, wasps, and mites. Life cycles and management strategies for specific gall-forming insects on crops like rice and mango are outlined. Studies quantify metabolites and enzymes in insect-induced leaf galls. The document concludes by summarizing gall development stages and potential damage to plants.
Origin & Evolution of seed habit in gymnosperm.pptxRenu Jangid
The document discusses the evolution of ovules and seeds in plants. It describes 6 key evolutionary events in ovule evolution, from heterospory to the formation of integuments. These events led to the retention of the megaspore within the nucellus and the development of endosporic megagametophytes. The evolution of ovules also involved a reduction in megaspores from multiple to a single functional one per megasporangium. The document then discusses theories on the evolution of integuments and seeds, including the nucellar modification concept where integuments developed from the nucellus through vascularization and lobing.
Vascular Cambium & Seasonal activity & its Role in Stem & RootFatima Ramay
Vascular Cambium & Seasonal activity & its Role in Stem & Root:
The vascular cambium (pl. cambia or cambiums) is a lateral meristem in the vascular tissue of plants.
The vascular cambium is a cylindrical layer of cambium that runs through the stem of a plant that undergoes secondary growth.
In Dicots:
The vascular cambium is in dicot stems and roots, located between the xylem and the phloem in the stem and root of a vascular plant, and is the source of both the secondary xylem growth (inwards, towards the pith) and the secondary phloem growth (outwards).
In Monocots:
Monocot stems, such as corn, palms and bamboos, do not have a vascular cambium and do not exhibit secondary growth by the production of concentric annual rings. They cannot increase in girth by adding lateral layers of cells as in conifers and woody dicots.
Cambium of some plants remains active for the entire period of their life, i.e., cambial cells divide and resulting cells mature to form xylem and phloem elements.
This type of seasonal activity usually found in the plants present in the tropical regions, and not all plants show cambial activity.
Percentage of ringless trees in the rain forests of;India : 75%Amazon : 43%Malaysia : 15%
In regions with definite seasonal climate; seasonal activity of cambium ceased with onset of unfavorable conditions; In Autumn, it enters the dormant state and lasts for the end of summer; In Spring, cambium again becomes active.
Duration of cambial activity is also affected by day-length, e.g., In Robinia pseudoacacia, cambium is dormant under short-day condition.
The cambium cells formed in circular in cross section from the beginning onwards.
The cambial ring is partially primary (fascicular cambium) and partially secondary (interfascicular cambium).
Periderm originates from the cortical cells (extra stelar in origin).
In Dicot stem, for mechanical support xylem is with comparatively smaller vessels, greater fibers and less parenchyma.
More amount of cork is produces for protection.
Lenticels on periderm are very prominent.
The cambial ring formed is wavy in the beginning and later becomes circular.
The cambium ring is completely secondary in origin.
Periderm originates from the pericycle (intra stelar in origin).
In Dicot root, xylem is with big thin walled vessels with few fibers and more parenchyma.
Less amount of cork is produced as root is underground.
Lenticels on periderm are not very prominent.
Stomata are small pores found on plant leaves that allow for gas exchange and transpiration. They consist of three main parts: the pore, guard cells, and subsidiary cells. The pore allows for gas exchange and transpiration. Guard cells are specialized cells that surround the pore and help open and close the stomata. Subsidiary cells are associated with the guard cells and help with their function. Together, the pore, guard cells, and subsidiary cells make up the stomatal apparatus. Stomata open during the day to allow for transpiration and photosynthesis, and close at night. There are different types of guard cell shapes and stomatal arrangements across monocot and dicot leaves.
This document summarizes the coevolution of plants and insects. It discusses how plants and insects have evolved reciprocally through natural selection to influence each other's evolution. Specifically, it describes how plants evolved chemical defenses and insects evolved adaptations like cytochrome P450 enzymes to metabolize plant toxins. The document also reviews several examples of coevolutionary relationships between specific plants and insect groups, such as yuccas and yucca moths, figs and fig wasps, and Passiflora plants and Heliconius butterflies. It examines how these interactions have led to morphological, behavioral, and chemical adaptations on both sides.
DEFENCE MECHANISM IN PLANTS AGAINST PATHOGENS (STRUCTURAL & BIOCHEMICAL) ansarishahid786
Plants have both structural and biochemical defense mechanisms against pathogens. Structural defenses include pre-existing traits like thick cuticles and presence of thick-walled cells, as well as induced responses like formation of cork layers and tyloses after infection. Biochemical defenses include pre-existing inhibitory compounds and enzymes, as well as induced responses like phytoalexins, hypersensitive response, and transgenic production of plantibodies after pathogen detection. Together these defenses provide multiple layers of protection against the wide variety of fungi, bacteria, viruses and other pathogens that plants encounter.
The plant cuticle is a protective layer covering the epidermis of leaves and young tissue. It is composed of a cutin polymer framework embedded with waxes. Cutin is a cross-linked polymer of fatty acids that forms the basic structure. Embedded waxes provide additional protection and support and vary between plant species but often include alcohols, acids, and esters. The cuticle protects plants from water loss, UV radiation, and pathogens. It can be extracted using techniques like maceration in rumen fluid or enzymatic degradation of cell walls. Research shows the cuticle thickens under drought and composition varies between plant species and developmental stages.
1. Marsilea is an aquatic or semi-aquatic plant commonly found in freshwater ponds and ditches in temperate regions like Pakistan and Punjab.
2. The vegetative plant is a sporophyte with a rhizome, adventitious roots, and compound leaves with four leaflets arranged in a cross-like pattern.
3. It is heterosporous, producing megaspores and microspores within sporocarps that contain sori with alternating rows of megasporangia and microsporangia. Megaspores develop into female gametophytes and microspores into male gametophytes.
1. The document discusses the Lamiaceae family, also known as the mint family. It is one of the largest families of flowering plants, with over 7,000 species distributed worldwide.
2. Members of the Lamiaceae family are mostly aromatic herbs or shrubs. They have characteristic features like opposite leaves, square stems, bilabiate flowers arranged in clusters, and nut-like fruits. Some economically important plants in this family include mints, basils, lavenders, rosemary, and sages.
3. The family is of great importance to humans for uses such as flavoring foods, perfumes, medicines, ornamentals, and dyes. Many species contain volatile oils that give
Origin & Evolution of seed habit in gymnosperm.pptxRenu Jangid
The document discusses the evolution of ovules and seeds in plants. It describes 6 key evolutionary events in ovule evolution, from heterospory to the formation of integuments. These events led to the retention of the megaspore within the nucellus and the development of endosporic megagametophytes. The evolution of ovules also involved a reduction in megaspores from multiple to a single functional one per megasporangium. The document then discusses theories on the evolution of integuments and seeds, including the nucellar modification concept where integuments developed from the nucellus through vascularization and lobing.
Vascular Cambium & Seasonal activity & its Role in Stem & RootFatima Ramay
Vascular Cambium & Seasonal activity & its Role in Stem & Root:
The vascular cambium (pl. cambia or cambiums) is a lateral meristem in the vascular tissue of plants.
The vascular cambium is a cylindrical layer of cambium that runs through the stem of a plant that undergoes secondary growth.
In Dicots:
The vascular cambium is in dicot stems and roots, located between the xylem and the phloem in the stem and root of a vascular plant, and is the source of both the secondary xylem growth (inwards, towards the pith) and the secondary phloem growth (outwards).
In Monocots:
Monocot stems, such as corn, palms and bamboos, do not have a vascular cambium and do not exhibit secondary growth by the production of concentric annual rings. They cannot increase in girth by adding lateral layers of cells as in conifers and woody dicots.
Cambium of some plants remains active for the entire period of their life, i.e., cambial cells divide and resulting cells mature to form xylem and phloem elements.
This type of seasonal activity usually found in the plants present in the tropical regions, and not all plants show cambial activity.
Percentage of ringless trees in the rain forests of;India : 75%Amazon : 43%Malaysia : 15%
In regions with definite seasonal climate; seasonal activity of cambium ceased with onset of unfavorable conditions; In Autumn, it enters the dormant state and lasts for the end of summer; In Spring, cambium again becomes active.
Duration of cambial activity is also affected by day-length, e.g., In Robinia pseudoacacia, cambium is dormant under short-day condition.
The cambium cells formed in circular in cross section from the beginning onwards.
The cambial ring is partially primary (fascicular cambium) and partially secondary (interfascicular cambium).
Periderm originates from the cortical cells (extra stelar in origin).
In Dicot stem, for mechanical support xylem is with comparatively smaller vessels, greater fibers and less parenchyma.
More amount of cork is produces for protection.
Lenticels on periderm are very prominent.
The cambial ring formed is wavy in the beginning and later becomes circular.
The cambium ring is completely secondary in origin.
Periderm originates from the pericycle (intra stelar in origin).
In Dicot root, xylem is with big thin walled vessels with few fibers and more parenchyma.
Less amount of cork is produced as root is underground.
Lenticels on periderm are not very prominent.
Stomata are small pores found on plant leaves that allow for gas exchange and transpiration. They consist of three main parts: the pore, guard cells, and subsidiary cells. The pore allows for gas exchange and transpiration. Guard cells are specialized cells that surround the pore and help open and close the stomata. Subsidiary cells are associated with the guard cells and help with their function. Together, the pore, guard cells, and subsidiary cells make up the stomatal apparatus. Stomata open during the day to allow for transpiration and photosynthesis, and close at night. There are different types of guard cell shapes and stomatal arrangements across monocot and dicot leaves.
This document summarizes the coevolution of plants and insects. It discusses how plants and insects have evolved reciprocally through natural selection to influence each other's evolution. Specifically, it describes how plants evolved chemical defenses and insects evolved adaptations like cytochrome P450 enzymes to metabolize plant toxins. The document also reviews several examples of coevolutionary relationships between specific plants and insect groups, such as yuccas and yucca moths, figs and fig wasps, and Passiflora plants and Heliconius butterflies. It examines how these interactions have led to morphological, behavioral, and chemical adaptations on both sides.
DEFENCE MECHANISM IN PLANTS AGAINST PATHOGENS (STRUCTURAL & BIOCHEMICAL) ansarishahid786
Plants have both structural and biochemical defense mechanisms against pathogens. Structural defenses include pre-existing traits like thick cuticles and presence of thick-walled cells, as well as induced responses like formation of cork layers and tyloses after infection. Biochemical defenses include pre-existing inhibitory compounds and enzymes, as well as induced responses like phytoalexins, hypersensitive response, and transgenic production of plantibodies after pathogen detection. Together these defenses provide multiple layers of protection against the wide variety of fungi, bacteria, viruses and other pathogens that plants encounter.
The plant cuticle is a protective layer covering the epidermis of leaves and young tissue. It is composed of a cutin polymer framework embedded with waxes. Cutin is a cross-linked polymer of fatty acids that forms the basic structure. Embedded waxes provide additional protection and support and vary between plant species but often include alcohols, acids, and esters. The cuticle protects plants from water loss, UV radiation, and pathogens. It can be extracted using techniques like maceration in rumen fluid or enzymatic degradation of cell walls. Research shows the cuticle thickens under drought and composition varies between plant species and developmental stages.
1. Marsilea is an aquatic or semi-aquatic plant commonly found in freshwater ponds and ditches in temperate regions like Pakistan and Punjab.
2. The vegetative plant is a sporophyte with a rhizome, adventitious roots, and compound leaves with four leaflets arranged in a cross-like pattern.
3. It is heterosporous, producing megaspores and microspores within sporocarps that contain sori with alternating rows of megasporangia and microsporangia. Megaspores develop into female gametophytes and microspores into male gametophytes.
1. The document discusses the Lamiaceae family, also known as the mint family. It is one of the largest families of flowering plants, with over 7,000 species distributed worldwide.
2. Members of the Lamiaceae family are mostly aromatic herbs or shrubs. They have characteristic features like opposite leaves, square stems, bilabiate flowers arranged in clusters, and nut-like fruits. Some economically important plants in this family include mints, basils, lavenders, rosemary, and sages.
3. The family is of great importance to humans for uses such as flavoring foods, perfumes, medicines, ornamentals, and dyes. Many species contain volatile oils that give
The document discusses endosperm, which is a nutritive tissue stored in seeds to provide nutrients for the embryo. There are three main types of endosperm based on development - nuclear, cellular, and helobial. Nuclear endosperm is the most common type and involves repeated nuclear division without cell wall formation initially. Cellular endosperm involves cell wall formation after each nuclear division. Helobial endosperm involves initial division into two cells like cellular endosperm, but further divisions are like nuclear endosperm. Endosperm can also have haustorial variations and can be ruminate, with an irregularly folded surface. Endosperm plays an important role in seed nutrition and development.
Cercospora is a genus of fungi that causes leaf spot diseases in various crops like groundnut and banana. It reproduces asexually through conidiophores and conidia. Symptoms include pale green to brown spots on leaves which enlarge and cause leaves to dry up. Control methods include fungicide application and avoiding repeated use of same fungicides. Viruses are biological agents that infect plant cells and force them to produce more virus particles. They are transmitted horizontally by insects or mechanically and vertically through seeds and vegetative propagation. Common viral diseases include tobacco mosaic virus, barley yellow dwarf virus, and soybean bud blight virus. Control methods include use of disease-free seeds and planting material, trap
The document summarizes key information about the palm family (Palmae/Arecaceae). It discusses the systematic position, distribution, vegetative and floral characteristics, economic importance, and examples of common palm plants. Some key points are:
- The palm family includes over 3000 species found in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions worldwide.
- Palms exhibit a wide range of growth habits from shrubs to large trees. They have unbranched stems, terminal clusters of large leaves, and fibrous root systems.
- Flowers are usually unisexual, trimerous and borne on large branched inflorescences. Fruits vary from berries to drupes.
This document provides an overview of the natural system of plant classification developed by George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker in their book Genera Plantarum. It describes the key features of their system, including dividing plants into two major groups - cryptogams (non-flowering plants) and phanerogams (flowering plants). Flowering plants are further divided into dicotyledons, monocotyledons, and gymnosperms. The system places plant families into a hierarchical structure of orders, cohorts, and series based on morphological characteristics. While pioneering for its time, the system is not fully phylogenetic and has limitations such as not clearly addressing the origin of angiosperms.
This document discusses the dispersal of plant pathogens. It defines dispersal as the transport of spores or infectious bodies from one host to another, resulting in the spread of disease. Dispersal can be direct through soil, seed, and planting material, or indirect through external agents like wind, water, insects, animals and humans. It then describes various modes of indirect dispersal, including wind which can disperse spores over short or long distances, water which can disperse propagules via rain splash or flowing water, and biological vectors like insects that transmit pathogens mechanically or through feeding. Other modes covered are dispersal by animals, humans, seed trade and farming activities. The document provides examples to illustrate different types of dispers
A large group of bacteria cause disease in plants. they have specific characteristics and structure. There are different mechanism by which bacteria affect the plant and cause disease symptom. It is generally survive in soil and dead and decay organic matters and spread by water, agricultural implements, propagating materials, insects and humans. Hence, management practices are designed accordingly. Crop rotation, field sanitation, disinfestation of agricultural implements, use of disease free or resistant varieties and use of antibiotics are few of them.
Rolf Dahlgren was a Danish botanist who published an influential plant classification system in 1975. He used a two-dimensional graphic system called a Dahlgrenogram to display phylogenetic relationships among plant groups. Dahlgren's system was based primarily on morphological and chemical characteristics and divided angiosperms into 31 superorders within two subclasses. While comprehensive, it considered only flowering plants and did not classify below the family level. Subsequent molecular studies have revised placements of some families from Dahlgren's system.
The document summarizes microsporogenesis, the development of the male gametophyte, and pollen morphology. It describes the structure of the anther and the development of microspores through meiosis within the microsporangia. The tapetum layer provides nutrients and enzymes that help separate microspores into pollen grains. Pollen grains contain a vegetative cell that divides to form two sperm cells or a generative cell that divides into two sperm, comprising the male germ unit that travels within the pollen tube. Pollen grains have an outer sculpted exine layer and inner intine layer. Their size, symmetry, and exine ornamentation vary between species.
Spike moss (Selaginella) is a small perennial herb that reproduces sexually and asexually. It produces cones with microsporophylls and megasporophylls that bear microsporangia and megasporangia containing haploid microspores and megaspores. The microspores and megaspores are released and can grow into new spike moss plants. Selaginella also reproduces vegetatively through adventitious branches, tubers, and bulbils that detach and form new individuals. The plant body has roots, stems, leaves, and rhizophores. The internal structures include epidermis, cortex, and a protostelic stele in
There are several methods to overcome plant incompatibility, including mixed pollination, bud pollination, stub pollination, and intra-ovarian pollination. Mixed pollination involves pollinating the stigma with a mixture of live incompatible and killed compatible pollen. Bud pollination works in some plants where pollination at an early bud stage can overcome incompatibility. Stub pollination removes part of the style to allow the pollen tube to reach the ovary in plants where incompatibility is restricted to the stigma. Intra-ovarian pollination introduces pollen directly into the ovary to fertilize it.
- The smut of barley is caused by the fungus Ustilago hordei. It is a seed-borne disease where the fungus systemically infects the plant.
- Symptoms appear at heading, with infected kernels replaced by dark brown masses of spores. Infected heads are hard and compact.
- The disease cycle involves the fungus spreading from contaminated seeds. The mycelium grows inside the plant with emerging ears and produces spores in floral parts. Spores are released during threshing to contaminate new seeds.
- Control measures include rogueing infected plants, using disease-free seed, seed treatment with fungicides, and growing resistant varieties.
Binomial nomenclature is the system of naming organisms using two-part scientific names. It was developed by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. Under this system, each species is identified by its genus and specific epithet. For example, Homo sapiens. The rules of binomial nomenclature specify that the first part of the name indicates the genus and is capitalized, while the second part indicates the species and is lowercase. Names must also be unique, universal, and stable to serve the purpose of scientific classification.
Apomixis in flowering plants is defined as the asexual formation of a seed from the maternal tissues of the ovule, avoiding the processes of meiosis and fertilization, leading to embryo development.
This document discusses the classification of phytoplasmas, which are wall-less bacteria that infect plants and are transmitted by insect vectors. It begins by describing early observations of phytoplasmas and their causal role in plant diseases. It then discusses various classification systems used over time, beginning with symptom-based classification and moving to methods based on serology, DNA hybridization, RFLP analysis of 16S rDNA, and sequencing of 16S rDNA and ribosomal protein genes. The latest classification system divides phytoplasmas into 18 major 16Sr groups and over 40 subgroups, providing an overview of the molecular tools that enabled increasingly precise classification of these obligate plant pathogens.
Pentoxylales were small trees or shrubs that existed in the Jurassic period in India. They had long and short shoots resembling Ginkgo, with spirally arranged leaves and scales. The stems (Pentoxylon) had five triangular segments around a central tissue. Leaves (Nipaniophyllum) were strap-shaped with a midrib. Male cones (Sahnia) bore pollen sacs on short shoots. Female cones (Carnoconites) had ovules aggregated into strobili on short shoots. Stomata were syndetochelic. Wood was pycnoxylic, resembling conifers. Pentoxylales displayed features intermediate between ferns
The oomycetes, also known as water molds, are a diverse group of microorganisms that include many devastating plant pathogens. They can live as saprotrophs breaking down decaying matter or as parasites on plants. The potato blight caused by Phytophthora infestans resulted in the Great Irish Famine of 1845. Oomycetes reproduce both sexually and asexually, with asexual reproduction involving the production of motile zoospores inside sporangia. They include some of the most damaging agricultural parasites and have helped scientists understand the evolution from aquatic to terrestrial lifestyles.
The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) governs the formal scientific names used for plants. Some key points:
- Carl Linnaeus is considered the father of modern taxonomy and introduced the system of scientific naming for species in 1753.
- Names are determined by nomenclature types and are based on priority of publication. Each taxonomic group can have only one correct scientific name.
- Names are revised in subsequent International Botanical Congresses starting in 1892 to establish standards for effective/valid publication, author citation, typification, and rejection of illegitimate names.
- Related codes also exist for zoological nomenclature, cultivated plants, bacteria,
The mystery object is a goldenrod gall, which is a ball-shaped growth on a goldenrod stem created by a goldenrod gall fly larva living inside. The gall fly lays its eggs on goldenrod, the larva then eats the stem's inside causing the gall to form, living within it for a year before emerging as an adult fly to mate and continue the lifecycle, with the gall providing shelter from predators and through winter.
Agrobacterium tumefaciens and crown gall diseaseskaushik iyer
Crown gall is a disease of plants caused by the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens that affects over 1000 plant species. Symptoms include round, rough galls forming at or near the soil line on infected plants. The disease is transmitted when the bacterium enters through wounds in the plant and induces tumor formation through genes carried by its Ti plasmid. The Ti plasmid integrates a segment called T-DNA into the plant's chromosomes that directs the plant to produce compounds the bacteria uses as nutrients, genetically engineering the infected plant cell.
The document discusses endosperm, which is a nutritive tissue stored in seeds to provide nutrients for the embryo. There are three main types of endosperm based on development - nuclear, cellular, and helobial. Nuclear endosperm is the most common type and involves repeated nuclear division without cell wall formation initially. Cellular endosperm involves cell wall formation after each nuclear division. Helobial endosperm involves initial division into two cells like cellular endosperm, but further divisions are like nuclear endosperm. Endosperm can also have haustorial variations and can be ruminate, with an irregularly folded surface. Endosperm plays an important role in seed nutrition and development.
Cercospora is a genus of fungi that causes leaf spot diseases in various crops like groundnut and banana. It reproduces asexually through conidiophores and conidia. Symptoms include pale green to brown spots on leaves which enlarge and cause leaves to dry up. Control methods include fungicide application and avoiding repeated use of same fungicides. Viruses are biological agents that infect plant cells and force them to produce more virus particles. They are transmitted horizontally by insects or mechanically and vertically through seeds and vegetative propagation. Common viral diseases include tobacco mosaic virus, barley yellow dwarf virus, and soybean bud blight virus. Control methods include use of disease-free seeds and planting material, trap
The document summarizes key information about the palm family (Palmae/Arecaceae). It discusses the systematic position, distribution, vegetative and floral characteristics, economic importance, and examples of common palm plants. Some key points are:
- The palm family includes over 3000 species found in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions worldwide.
- Palms exhibit a wide range of growth habits from shrubs to large trees. They have unbranched stems, terminal clusters of large leaves, and fibrous root systems.
- Flowers are usually unisexual, trimerous and borne on large branched inflorescences. Fruits vary from berries to drupes.
This document provides an overview of the natural system of plant classification developed by George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker in their book Genera Plantarum. It describes the key features of their system, including dividing plants into two major groups - cryptogams (non-flowering plants) and phanerogams (flowering plants). Flowering plants are further divided into dicotyledons, monocotyledons, and gymnosperms. The system places plant families into a hierarchical structure of orders, cohorts, and series based on morphological characteristics. While pioneering for its time, the system is not fully phylogenetic and has limitations such as not clearly addressing the origin of angiosperms.
This document discusses the dispersal of plant pathogens. It defines dispersal as the transport of spores or infectious bodies from one host to another, resulting in the spread of disease. Dispersal can be direct through soil, seed, and planting material, or indirect through external agents like wind, water, insects, animals and humans. It then describes various modes of indirect dispersal, including wind which can disperse spores over short or long distances, water which can disperse propagules via rain splash or flowing water, and biological vectors like insects that transmit pathogens mechanically or through feeding. Other modes covered are dispersal by animals, humans, seed trade and farming activities. The document provides examples to illustrate different types of dispers
A large group of bacteria cause disease in plants. they have specific characteristics and structure. There are different mechanism by which bacteria affect the plant and cause disease symptom. It is generally survive in soil and dead and decay organic matters and spread by water, agricultural implements, propagating materials, insects and humans. Hence, management practices are designed accordingly. Crop rotation, field sanitation, disinfestation of agricultural implements, use of disease free or resistant varieties and use of antibiotics are few of them.
Rolf Dahlgren was a Danish botanist who published an influential plant classification system in 1975. He used a two-dimensional graphic system called a Dahlgrenogram to display phylogenetic relationships among plant groups. Dahlgren's system was based primarily on morphological and chemical characteristics and divided angiosperms into 31 superorders within two subclasses. While comprehensive, it considered only flowering plants and did not classify below the family level. Subsequent molecular studies have revised placements of some families from Dahlgren's system.
The document summarizes microsporogenesis, the development of the male gametophyte, and pollen morphology. It describes the structure of the anther and the development of microspores through meiosis within the microsporangia. The tapetum layer provides nutrients and enzymes that help separate microspores into pollen grains. Pollen grains contain a vegetative cell that divides to form two sperm cells or a generative cell that divides into two sperm, comprising the male germ unit that travels within the pollen tube. Pollen grains have an outer sculpted exine layer and inner intine layer. Their size, symmetry, and exine ornamentation vary between species.
Spike moss (Selaginella) is a small perennial herb that reproduces sexually and asexually. It produces cones with microsporophylls and megasporophylls that bear microsporangia and megasporangia containing haploid microspores and megaspores. The microspores and megaspores are released and can grow into new spike moss plants. Selaginella also reproduces vegetatively through adventitious branches, tubers, and bulbils that detach and form new individuals. The plant body has roots, stems, leaves, and rhizophores. The internal structures include epidermis, cortex, and a protostelic stele in
There are several methods to overcome plant incompatibility, including mixed pollination, bud pollination, stub pollination, and intra-ovarian pollination. Mixed pollination involves pollinating the stigma with a mixture of live incompatible and killed compatible pollen. Bud pollination works in some plants where pollination at an early bud stage can overcome incompatibility. Stub pollination removes part of the style to allow the pollen tube to reach the ovary in plants where incompatibility is restricted to the stigma. Intra-ovarian pollination introduces pollen directly into the ovary to fertilize it.
- The smut of barley is caused by the fungus Ustilago hordei. It is a seed-borne disease where the fungus systemically infects the plant.
- Symptoms appear at heading, with infected kernels replaced by dark brown masses of spores. Infected heads are hard and compact.
- The disease cycle involves the fungus spreading from contaminated seeds. The mycelium grows inside the plant with emerging ears and produces spores in floral parts. Spores are released during threshing to contaminate new seeds.
- Control measures include rogueing infected plants, using disease-free seed, seed treatment with fungicides, and growing resistant varieties.
Binomial nomenclature is the system of naming organisms using two-part scientific names. It was developed by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. Under this system, each species is identified by its genus and specific epithet. For example, Homo sapiens. The rules of binomial nomenclature specify that the first part of the name indicates the genus and is capitalized, while the second part indicates the species and is lowercase. Names must also be unique, universal, and stable to serve the purpose of scientific classification.
Apomixis in flowering plants is defined as the asexual formation of a seed from the maternal tissues of the ovule, avoiding the processes of meiosis and fertilization, leading to embryo development.
This document discusses the classification of phytoplasmas, which are wall-less bacteria that infect plants and are transmitted by insect vectors. It begins by describing early observations of phytoplasmas and their causal role in plant diseases. It then discusses various classification systems used over time, beginning with symptom-based classification and moving to methods based on serology, DNA hybridization, RFLP analysis of 16S rDNA, and sequencing of 16S rDNA and ribosomal protein genes. The latest classification system divides phytoplasmas into 18 major 16Sr groups and over 40 subgroups, providing an overview of the molecular tools that enabled increasingly precise classification of these obligate plant pathogens.
Pentoxylales were small trees or shrubs that existed in the Jurassic period in India. They had long and short shoots resembling Ginkgo, with spirally arranged leaves and scales. The stems (Pentoxylon) had five triangular segments around a central tissue. Leaves (Nipaniophyllum) were strap-shaped with a midrib. Male cones (Sahnia) bore pollen sacs on short shoots. Female cones (Carnoconites) had ovules aggregated into strobili on short shoots. Stomata were syndetochelic. Wood was pycnoxylic, resembling conifers. Pentoxylales displayed features intermediate between ferns
The oomycetes, also known as water molds, are a diverse group of microorganisms that include many devastating plant pathogens. They can live as saprotrophs breaking down decaying matter or as parasites on plants. The potato blight caused by Phytophthora infestans resulted in the Great Irish Famine of 1845. Oomycetes reproduce both sexually and asexually, with asexual reproduction involving the production of motile zoospores inside sporangia. They include some of the most damaging agricultural parasites and have helped scientists understand the evolution from aquatic to terrestrial lifestyles.
The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) governs the formal scientific names used for plants. Some key points:
- Carl Linnaeus is considered the father of modern taxonomy and introduced the system of scientific naming for species in 1753.
- Names are determined by nomenclature types and are based on priority of publication. Each taxonomic group can have only one correct scientific name.
- Names are revised in subsequent International Botanical Congresses starting in 1892 to establish standards for effective/valid publication, author citation, typification, and rejection of illegitimate names.
- Related codes also exist for zoological nomenclature, cultivated plants, bacteria,
The mystery object is a goldenrod gall, which is a ball-shaped growth on a goldenrod stem created by a goldenrod gall fly larva living inside. The gall fly lays its eggs on goldenrod, the larva then eats the stem's inside causing the gall to form, living within it for a year before emerging as an adult fly to mate and continue the lifecycle, with the gall providing shelter from predators and through winter.
Agrobacterium tumefaciens and crown gall diseaseskaushik iyer
Crown gall is a disease of plants caused by the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens that affects over 1000 plant species. Symptoms include round, rough galls forming at or near the soil line on infected plants. The disease is transmitted when the bacterium enters through wounds in the plant and induces tumor formation through genes carried by its Ti plasmid. The Ti plasmid integrates a segment called T-DNA into the plant's chromosomes that directs the plant to produce compounds the bacteria uses as nutrients, genetically engineering the infected plant cell.
Agrobacterium tumefaciensppt............it is a slide presentation on interki...Anwesha Banerjee
agrobacterium gene transfer is very important for all students learning biotechnology and microbiology , i have prepaed it for my college presentation class hope all my friends like it
This document provides information on psyllids, small plant-sucking insects. It describes that over 160 psyllid species are found in California, with most being native and not pests. However, about 18 introduced exotic psyllid species can be serious pests of crops and ornamental plants. The document outlines psyllid identification, life cycle, common native and introduced pest species, potential plant damage caused by feeding, and integrated pest management techniques for monitoring and controlling problematic psyllid outbreaks.
This document provides an overview of common insect pests that affect vegetable gardens and their management. It discusses pests that affect specific plant families like cucurbits, cole crops, tomatoes, beans, and others. For each pest, it describes identifying features, types of damage, life cycles, and recommended control methods which include cultural, mechanical, chemical and biological controls. Control methods aim to reduce pest populations while preserving beneficial insect predators and parasites.
1) Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a soil bacterium that can transfer DNA fragments (T-DNA) from its tumor-inducing plasmid into plant cells.
2) The T-DNA is flanked by left and right border sequences and encodes genes that cause plant cells to form tumors and produce nutrients for the bacteria.
3) Upon detection of wounded plant cells, genes on the bacterial plasmid and chromosome mediate T-DNA processing and transfer into the plant cell nucleus where it integrates randomly.
Ferrero M, Kreiter S & Tixier M-S (2008). Ability of Phytoseiulus longipes to control spider mite pests on tomato in European greenhouses. Integrative Acarology, Proceedings of the 6th EURAAC, 461-468. 21-25th July 2008, Montpellier (France).
presentation contains history,its biology, sign and symptoms when attacks flowers, floral plants that are attacked and the most important how they are managed (bio control + synthetic control)
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The sugar beets had bumps and growths that made them stunted. This is likely crown gall disease, caused by the soil bacteria Agrobacterium tumefaciens. A. tumefaciens contains a tumor-inducing plasmid that gets transferred to plant cells, integrating into the plant DNA and causing uncontrolled cell growth and gall formation through the production of auxin and cytokinin. The infected field should be replanted with cereal crops for a long time to decrease the A. tumefaciens population, and the antibiotic agrocin can be sprayed to further treat the field.
This document provides information on plant diseases that affect various crops and recommendations for controlling each disease. For each disease listed, the recommendations typically include using resistant varieties when available, applying appropriate fungicides or other chemicals, practicing crop rotation, and removing diseased plants or plant parts. Control is listed as the recommended action for most diseases.
1 Plant Health Care Bacteria, Virus, Photoplasmasherylwil
This document discusses the biotic and abiotic causes of plant diseases. The major biotic causes are fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, and phytoplasmas. Fungi are the largest pathogen group and reproduce via spores. Bacteria are unicellular and reproduce by binary fission. Viruses can only be seen with an electron microscope and reproduce by taking over a host's reproductive machinery. Nematodes are parasitic worms that reproduce via eggs. Phytoplasmas are wall-less bacteria that live in the phloem and reproduce by binary fission.
The document discusses the two spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae. It describes the mite's morphology, life cycle, distribution, host plants, and economic importance. The two spotted spider mite can damage a wide range of plants by feeding on their leaves and flowers. Management strategies discussed include biological control using predator mites and insects, as well as chemical control using miticides.
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by Christopher Philips, Assistant Professor | Department of Entomology, University of Minnesota
Presented at the 2015 Minnesota Statewide High Tunnel Conference.
Ento 402 (storage pest)non insect pest mitesVaibhav Wadhwa
This document provides information about mites, including their classification and importance. It discusses how mites can infest and damage agricultural crops, stored produce, and furniture. Mites can cause allergies in humans. The document describes the characteristics of mites such as their body structure and life cycle. It provides details on different families of mites including phytophagous and predatory mites. Specific mite species that damage important crops are listed. The symptoms of mite damage and methods of mite management including chemical and biological controls are summarized.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help boost feelings of calmness, happiness and focus.
Pongamia pinnata is a medium-sized tree native to India that can be cultivated for biofuel production. Its seeds contain 30-40% oil that can be processed into biodiesel. Pongamia is well-suited to grow on degraded or waste lands with minimal care, providing an income source for rural communities. Mature trees begin seed production after 5 years and can yield over 100 kg of seeds annually, containing up to 35% oil that has properties suitable for biodiesel. Pongamia cultivation requires low inputs and its propagation is achieved through direct seeding or nursery seedlings.
The document summarizes different types of mites including itch mites, house dust mites, and scrub typhus mites. Itch mites cause scabies in humans through burrowing under the skin. House dust mites are found worldwide in dust and are a common cause of allergies. Scrub typhus is transmitted by the larvae of trombiculid mites and causes a disease called scrub typhus in parts of Asia and Australia.
Este documento resume las características principales de los ácaros. Pertenecen al filo Arácnidos y existen entre 50,000 y 500,000 especies identificadas. La mayoría son fitófagos, detritívoros o depredadores. Algunos son parásitos que pueden causar problemas económicos o enfermedades en humanos y animales como sarna y alergias. Presentan cuerpos segmentados con varios tagmas y entre 6 y 8 patas en su etapa adulta.
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- Guar or cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonolobus) is mainly grown in India, especially in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab.
- It is used as a source of food, fodder, and feed, and its seeds produce galactomannan gum which is used as a thickener, binder, and stabilizer in many industries like food and pharmaceuticals.
- The crop is self-pollinated due to its cleistogamous nature, but some outcrossing of 0.5-7.9% has been reported. Breeding objectives include developing varieties with higher yield, summer adaptability, disease
- Guar or cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonolobus) is mainly grown in India, especially in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab.
- It is used as a source of food, fodder, and feed, and its seeds produce galactomannan gum which is used as a thickener, binder, and stabilizer in many industries like food and pharmaceuticals.
- The crop is self-pollinated due to its cleistogamous nature, but some outcrossing of 0.5-7.9% has been reported. Breeding objectives include developing varieties with higher yield, summer adaptability, disease
Habitat management plays an important role in integrated pest management by manipulating the agricultural landscape to promote natural enemies of pest species. The objectives of habitat management are to create suitable habitat to enhance natural enemy populations and maintain pest populations at subeconomic levels. Key approaches include intercropping, strip cropping, trap cropping, and providing additional food and overwintering resources to support natural enemies. Case studies demonstrate how these techniques can increase levels of pest egg parasitism and reduce pest populations in various crop systems.
This document discusses non-insecticidal approaches for vegetable pest management. It begins by explaining that non-insecticidal management uses pest control techniques that do not rely on insecticides, instead using biological and cultural methods. Some key non-insecticidal approaches discussed include cultural practices like crop rotation, planting resistant varieties, and trap cropping. Mechanical methods like collection/destruction, trellising and protected cultivation are also summarized. The use of biological controls like predators, parasitoids, pathogens and entomopathogenic fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes are explained. Finally, the document presents three case studies evaluating the effectiveness of different non-insecticidal approaches for managing pests in vegetables.
This document contains information about diagnosing plant damage, diseases, and deficiencies. It includes:
1. A table listing common pests that damage crops like rice, coconut, and mango, the symptoms they cause, and recommended chemical and non-chemical control methods.
2. A table listing common fungal, bacterial, and viral diseases of crops like rice, brinjal, and sapota, the symptoms they produce, and suggested management practices.
3. A brief section about diagnosing deficiency symptoms of different soil elements.
4. A note that there is a separate "weed album" referenced.
This document discusses farmscaping, which is the use of specific plants and landscaping techniques to attract beneficial insects for pest management on farms. It provides definitions of farmscaping and describes various farmscaping practices like crop rotation, intercropping, trap cropping, cover cropping, companion planting, and establishing insectary plants and hedgerows. Examples are given of plants that attract beneficial insects and the pests they control. The document emphasizes that farmscaping is an ecological approach that is economical, provides habitat for beneficials, and helps control pests while improving soil, crops, and sustainability.
This document provides information on the maize stem borer (Chilo partellus), including its identification, life cycle, damage to maize crops, host plants, economic injury level, and management practices. It describes C. partellus as a major pest of maize in Asia and Africa, causing up to 80% yield losses. The document outlines identification features at different life stages. Management strategies discussed are cultural, biological, pheromonal, botanical, and chemical control, with an emphasis on using natural enemies and less toxic insecticides applied early in crop development.
in vitro screening of larvicidal and insecticidal activity of methanolic extr...IJEAB
The aim of this work was to evaluate the larvicidal and insecticidal activity of the selected plants namelyArtocarpus altilis, Piper betle and Artocarpus heterophyllus. The leaves of Artocarpus altilis and Artocarpus heterophyllus and roots of Piper betle were subjected to methanolic solvent extraction for the isolation of various bioactive constituents. The evaluation of larvicidal activity was carried out using late third instar larvae of Drosophila melanogaster. The insecticidal activity of extracts was studied against adult Bruchus pisorum, Tribolium castaneum, Sitophilus oryzae and was evaluated by direct contact application method .Nucleic acids and protein contents are regarded as important biomarkers of the metabolic potential of cells, as these play the main role in regulating the different activities of cells. Piper betle and Artocarpus heterophyllusextractshad a reducing effect on the nucleic acid and protein content in the larvae in a dose dependent manner whereas Artocarpus altilis extract did not exhibit any significant larvicidal activity. Piper betle and Artocarpus heterophyllusextractsshowed good insecticidal activity whereas A.altilis extract showed poor insecticidal activity. The results of the present study clearly indicate that Piper betle and Artocarpus heterophyllus extracts can be developed as ecofriendly larvicides and were also quite effective as insecticides for providing a better and excellent alternate for the control of insects.
Insecticide effect of plant extracts on aphids of watermelonAlexander Decker
1) The study examines the insecticidal effects of neem oil, thyme essential oil, and oregano essential oil on aphids that infest watermelons.
2) Field tests were conducted in 2010-2011 in Morocco on watermelon fields, measuring the mortality rates of aphids exposed to doses of 0.5%, 1%, and 5% of the three products over time periods of 1 to 11 hours.
3) The results showed that the plant-based products had insecticidal activity against the aphids.
Insect Pest Management - University of MarylandFawn85w
This chapter discusses insect pest management using a systems approach. It examines physical, cultural, biological and chemical controls and provides tables summarizing management tactics for certain pests in specific crops. The chapter emphasizes enhancing natural enemies through practices like companion planting, trap cropping and providing flowering plants that attract beneficial insects. It also discusses scouting, pest identification, and general cultural controls like crop rotation, sanitation and timing of plantings.
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences(IOSR-JPBS) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of Pharmacy and Biological Science. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in Pharmacy and Biological Science. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Effect of Extract of Ailanthus Excelsa on Red Cotton Bug (Dysdercus Cingulatus)IOSR Journals
Botanical pesticides have pesticidal or ovicidal or repellent activities. The development of resistance to existing conventional synthetic pesticides and the increasing public concern over environmental pollution and health hazards created by synthetic pesticides, generate a great need for new types of pest management agent’s advantage with higher activity against the target pests, and lower impact on humans and environmental quality. Repellents are the chemicals which cause an insect to make an oriented movement away from its source. Due to their odoriferous nature, oils of plants have been used for this purpose. Repellency in the present study has been noted visually in the treated insects and the observations recorded have been depicted. The results showed 95% repellency in the treated arms of petridish in fraction of Ailanthus ecxcelsa.
The weed seedbank is the reserve of viable weed seeds present on the soil surface and scattered in the soil profile. It consists of both new weed seeds recently shed and older seeds that have persisted in the soil for several years. Agricultural soils can contain thousands of weed seeds per square foot and understanding the factors impacting the dynamics of weed seedbanks can help in the development of integrated weed management (IWM) programs. Instead of solely considering crop yield loss, management could also include strategies to deplete the weed seed bank.
This document summarizes the plant wealth and biodiversity of Solapur district in Maharashtra, India. It finds that the district contains 1441 plant species across 694 genera and 143 families, with 1046 dicot and 339 monocot species. The most common plant families are Poaceae, Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Cyperaceae. Many species are cultivated for food, fodder, oils, vegetables, fruits, and medicine. The native vegetation includes tropical dry deciduous forests and thorny forests, as well as grasslands. The ratio of woody to herbaceous plants and monocots to dicots indicates drier climatic conditions.
11.effect of plant extracts on post flowering insect pests and grain yield of...Alexander Decker
1) A field study was conducted in Nigeria to evaluate the effects of plant extracts from Balanites aegyptiaca, Momordica balsamina, and Vernonia amygdalina on cowpea insect pests and yield.
2) The results showed that Balanites and Momordica extracts significantly reduced several major cowpea insect pests and increased cowpea pod and seed weights compared to the untreated control.
3) Cypermethrin insecticide provided the best pest control and highest cowpea yields, but Balanites and Momordica extracts showed potential as alternative organic pest management options for farmers.
11.[46 51]effect of plant extracts on post flowering insect pests and grain y...Alexander Decker
1) A field study was conducted in Nigeria to evaluate the effects of plant extracts from Balanites aegyptiaca, Momordica balsamina, and Vernonia amygdalina on cowpea insect pests and yield.
2) The results showed that Balanites and Momordica extracts significantly reduced several major cowpea insect pests and increased cowpea pod and seed weights compared to the untreated control.
3) Cypermethrin insecticide provided the best pest control and highest cowpea yields, but Balanites and Momordica extracts showed potential as alternative organic pest management options for farmers.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This study was carried out on the mycoflora associated with seeds of different citrus species. Citrus seed material was collected from districts of Punjab, i.e. Multan, Sargodha and Khanpur. Standard methods were applied for the isolation and identification of fungi. A total of 11 fungi including Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus flavus, Dreschslera tetramera, Alternaria alternata, Curvularia lunata, Macrophomina phaseolina, Aspergillus niger, Fusarium solani, Fusarium moniliforme, Rhizopus and Penicillium spp were isolated from the seeds of citrus. For control of isolated seed-born fungi, 3 recommended fungicides such as Ridomil Gold, Bavistin, Score and two chemical Salicylic acid and Boric acid, were used at 20, 30, 40 mg/10 mL and 5, 6, 7 μL/10 mL, respectively and chemical with 20, 30, 40 mg/10 mL. All these fungicide and chemicals significantly reuced with population of all fungi present in naturally infected seed samples. Ridomil Gold and Salicylic acid were found to be the best for the control of se d-born fungi of citrus seed at 40 mg/10 mL. The isolation and identification of different mycotoxins is essential to study health status of the citrus consumers and to safeguard the standards of WTO.
Effect of environmental pollution on the quality of an edible plant Alternant...Premier Publishers
The present study is the comparative analysis of phytochemical constituents and microbial load of an edible plant Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb collected from unpolluted and polluted site. Preliminary phytochemical analysis was performed with acetone, aqueous, chloroform, ethanol and petroleum ether extracts (unpolluted and polluted site) of A philoxeroides that showed the presence of alkaloids, carbohydrates, saponins, phenols, flavonoids, aminoacids, diterpenes, tannin, terpenoids, protein, steroid, oxalate, coumarin and quinones. The ethanol extract showed higher number of phytochemical constituents when compared to the other extract of unpolluted site. The microbial load is also enumerated in the unpolluted and polluted site. In conclusion, phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of many phytoconstituents in ethanol extract and the microbial load is less in the unpolluted site when compared to the polluted site.
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ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
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Date: May 29, 2024
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2. Contents
What is gall ?
Types of gall
Gall Formers – Insects, mites & others
Importance of galls
Management
Conclusion
2
3. What is gall ?
‘Pathologically’ developed cells, tissues or organs of
plants
Hypertrophy and hyperplasy
Abnormal growth caused by another organism
(Mani, 1964 ; Margaret and Peter, 1996)
3
4. 4
•Reaction of cambium and other meristematic tissues to
stimuli produced by the organisms.
• Minute to 2 inches in diameter
•As shelter and food source and gives protection form
parasites and predators
(Mani, 2000)
5. Modern explanation of gall
Abnormal growths of Bacteria and Fungi - Tumours
Insect and mite induced ones - Gall
(Raman, 2007 )
Actual Causes for Gall formation
The organism induces/ produces higher levels of
plant growth hormones (Hartley, 1998 ;
Byers, 2005)
5
6. 6
May be pest or may not be
•Most are harmless but just look interesting
•Damage high value of plants
(Mani, 1973 and Buss, 2007)
7. 7
Can alter resource allocation
•Negative effect on the fitness of the plant
Decrease the energy
allocated to flowering
Less energy to
reproduction- fewer
seeds
Fewer and small size
rhizomes
8. General Types
Open Galls
Closed Galls
Simple Galls/ Monothalamous/Unilarval
Compound/ Polythalamous/ Multilarval
Unilocular- With one cavity
Plurilocular-With many cavities
8
(Mani,1973)
9. Types of Galls Definitions
1. Blistergalls Blister-like swellings of leaves
2. Budgalls Deformities in buds
3. Bullet galls Nearly solid, unicellular or monothalamous galls
Looks like bullets
4. Cecidomyia General term applied to any species referring to
gall midges
9
Different Types of Galls (Based on Sites)
10. 5. Erineum Hairy or pile-like by plant mites
6. Flower galls Deformed flowers or masses of flowers
7. Fruit galls Deformity on fruits and seeds
8. Leaf galls Deformations with leaves
9. Leaf spots Marked discoloration rather than swellings
or deformation
10. Oak apples Term used for particular familiar large galls
on oaks of genus Amphibolips
11. Pouch galls Simple, pouch-like deformities
10
11. 13. Roly-poly galls Loose, usually oval cell with a large cavity
14. Root galls Galls on roots of plants
15. Rosette galls On bud tip. Generally consist of central cell
surrounded by a rosette of partly developed
leaves
16. Stem or twig galls Deformations on twigs and stems
17 Subcorticol galls Galls just under the bark of (usually) one side
of stem or twig. Irregularly shaped
11
(Ananthakrishan and Raman, 1989)
13. 13
Where we can find insect and mite galls
On leaves
On Petioles
On Flower buds
On flower heads
On Stems
On Barks
On Roots
On Branches
14. Major Plant Families in which galls are formed
Leguminiaceae
Moraceae
Lauraceae
Combretaceae
Anacardaceae
Cucurbitaceae
Compositae
*** Insect galls are becoming economically important especially
in perennial ecosystems***
About 80 percent of the gall wasps produce galls specifically on
oak trees (Mani, 1973)
14
15. 15
Insect Specificity to produce Galls
Seasonal Abundance
Gall development usually begins in the spring and
progresses throughout the summer and fall months.
( Raman, 1983 & 2007 ; Varadarasan et al., 1982)
90% - host specific
17. Agrobacterium tumefaciens, -
crown gall
17
Fungus stem gall or "poop gall"
on choke cherry (Prunus
virginiana). The swollen stems
are caused by the fungus
Dibotryon morbosum
19. 19
Diptera
Largest number of gall-making insects
Cecidomyiidae(Gall Midges),
Trupaneidae , Oscinidae, Agromyzidae
Hymenoptera
• Majority are in the Cynipidae Gall
Wasps
Mainly in on oaks
• Tenthredinidae, Eurytomidae,
• Torymidae and Chalcididae
20. 20
Lepidoptera
More in Tortricidae and Elachistidae
Aegeriidae, Tineidae, Olethreutidae, Lavernidae, Pyralididae
Thyridadae
Homoptera
Aphididae, psyllidae, coccidae
Coleoptera
Curculionidae,Buprestidae,Cerambycidae
21. 122 species of gall forming insect and mits
species were indentified.
91 insect species,31 mite species.
13 alien insects.
Most frequented hosts are Quercus-28 species,
Acer -10, Populus-9, Telia-8.
Jan Kollar (2011)
21
23. 23
Number of species of galls related
to major fruit crops
Number of gall forming species
reported on selected fruit crops
(Uma and Verghese, 2008)
An over view of some plant galls of selected trees in India
24. 24
Parts of trees affected by galls and the number of
species involved in selected tress
Leaf Inflorescence Bud Stem Twig
Mangifera indica + 20 +5 +3 +2 +1
Syzigium cumini +4 - - +2 -
Acacia leucopolea +8 +2 +2 +4 -
Pongamia glabra +1 +1 +1 - +2
Dalbergia sissoo +3 +1 - - -
(Uma and Verghese, 2008)
28. Mango gall midges Cecidomyiidae(Diptera)
Procontarinia sp. leaf
P. allahabadensis (Grover 1962) leaf
P. amraeomyia (Rao 1950) leaf
P. mangiferae (Felt 1911) leaf, stem
P. mangifoliae (Grover 1965) leaf
P. matteiana Keiffer & Cecconi 1906 leaf
Cecidomyiinae: Lasiopteridi: Lasiopterini
Lasioptera mangiflorae (Grover 1968) flower
[Meunieriella mangiflorae Grover 1968]
Cecidomyiinae: Lasiopteridi: Dasineurini
Dasineura amaramanjarae (Grover 1964) flower
Gephyraulus indica (Grover & Prasad 1965)
flower 28Raman et al. (2009)
Incidence of mango midge and its control
29. Life cycle: EP- 2 to 3 days, LP-7 to 10 days,
PP- 5 to 7 days, pest over the period of Jan- March
Favourable climatic conditions, Temp-24oc,
RH- 60-82%
Symptoms:small raised wrat like galls on leaves,Infested
bud develop as along pointed galls.
Management : Cultural control
Chemical control- fenitrothion 0.05%
Bifenthrin @70ml/100L
Biological control: Platygaster sp.
Eupelmus sp.
Inostemma ocularae
Torymus sp.
29
Waqar Ahmed et al. (2005)
30. 30
Quantitative Estimation of Some Metabolites and
Enzymes in Insect induced Leaf Galls of Mangifera
indica
(Marmit and Sharma, 2008)
31. 31
Host Plant -Mangifera indica
Gall Insect – Amradiplosis allahabadensis at Jaipur,
Rajasthan
1.Estimation of total soluble sugar- Phenol
sulphuric acid reagent method
2.Estimation of reducing sugar- Miller(1972)
3. Determination of α- amylase activity- by
measuring the maltose and other reducing
sugar – by 3-5 dinitro salycylic acid
calorimetric method of Bernfeld(1955).
4. Estimation of invertase activity- by Harris and
Jaffcoat method (1974)
35. Effectofnurserytreatment andseedlingrootdiponricegallmidgeinfestationduring
khariff,1997and1998
Treatment Dose Mean silver shoot yield
30 DAT 40 DAT 50 DAT 60 DAT q/ha % increased
over control
Corbofuran 3G(seedling treatment at 45
DBP+ monocrotophosat 45 and 60 DAT)
1.5Kg
a.i./ha
0.78
(1.10.)
5.37
(2.40)
5.94
(2.52)
7.33
(2.63)
39.14 21.40
Carbosulphon 5G(seedling treatment at 45
DBP+ monocrotophosat 45 and 60 DAT)
1.5Kg
a.i./ha
1.71
(2.81)
7.48
(3.21)
9.94
(3.10)
9.09 37.25 15.54
Isazophos 3G5G(seedling treatment at 45
DBP+ monocrotophosat 45 and 60 DAT)
1.5Kg
a.i./ha
2.15
(1.62)
8.67(2.0
1)
9.37
(3.13)
9.06
(3.14)
37.07 14.98
Chloropyriphos 20 EC5G(seedling
treatment at 45 DBP+ monocrotophosat
45 and 60 DAT)
0.22% 0.62
(0.97)
4.95
(2.31)
5.75
(2.48)
6.77
(2.51)
39.97 23.98
Monocrotophosat 45 and 60 DAT 1.5Kga.i./
ha
4.65
(3.50)
11.86
(3.83)
14.36(3.
79)
14.57 34.05 5.61
Untreated control 11.46
(2.25)
15.82
(3.45)
17.07
(10.71)
32.24
(4.22)
SE(m) 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.09 0.13 0.62
CD 0.05 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.25 0.37 0.37 1.79
Singh et al. (2000)
36. Rose Pea Gall by gall a wasp (Diplolepis
rosae)
36
Hymenopterans gall former
Vein Pocket Galls, Macrodiplosis
quercusoruca
Goldenrod Stem Gall - by the
small fly Eurosta solidaginis
37. 37
Wool-sower Gall on a White Oak twig –
seeds like items inside the gall. - by
Cynipid Wasp, Callirhytis seminator
Horned Oak Gall - by Cynipidae. It is the
Horned Oak Gall Wasp, Callirhytis
cornigera
An "oak apple" gall caused by the
gall wasp (Andricus californicus)
41. 41
Damage
Feeding of larva on tender portion of the plant and
releasing oxalic acid, etc.
The tiny galls formed on the stem kill the affected portion
of the plant - stoppage the apical growth
At the side, buds become active - bushy growth of the
plant.
Photosynthetic activity gets affected.
Loss in yield
Bio-control-
Aprostocetus sp.
Megastigmus sp. Kavitha Kumari , 2009
46. 46
Petiole Gall on cottonwood trees,
by Petiole Gall Aphid
Pemphigus populitransversus
Hackberry Petiole Gall by Psyllid-
Pachypsylla venusta
Aphid and Psyllid gall formers
Hackberry Nipple Gall – Psyllids-
Pachypsylla
47. 47
Do aphid galls provide good nutrients for the
aphids? : Comparison of amino acid
concentrations in galls among Tetraneura species
(Aphididae: Erisomatinae)
Suzuki et al., 2009
48. 48
Host Plant - Japanese elm - Ulmus davidiana
Gall Insect - 6 species of aphids
T. yezoensis T.sp.O T. fusiformis T.
radicicola T. trianguala T. sorini
Control: Intact Leaves
Suzuki et al., 2009
49. 49
Amino
Acids
Aphid Species
T.y T.sp.O T.f T.r T.s T.t Intact
Leaves
Total
(nM)
1422.9
410.7a
1170.5
441.7a
697.4
158.6a
77.0
18.0 b
47.59
14.6b
35.3 80
5.6b
Essen
tial
a.a
113.6
32.6a
91.6
27.6ab
48.3
12.4ab
16.6
4.7bc
10.0
2.8c
3.3 9.1
0.8c
#aphi
ds*
19.2
2.7
41.3
7.0
18.3
2.6
7.8
0.6
5.8
1.0
7.9
0.5
-
Average concentrations( SD) of amino acids found in Tetraneura
galls and intact leaves of Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Control)
*- Average no. of second generation aphid per gall
Suzuki et al., 2009
50. 50
Amino
Acids
Leaf T. y. T.sp.
O
T. f. T. r. T. t. T. s.
Arginine 0.39 8.42 17.84 14.95 0.98 0.45 1.48
Threonine 3.11 57.74 43.03 13.73 4.66 1.74 2.72
Aspergine 2.25 1078.3 835.9 515.0 20.21 1.76 13.93
Glutamic
Acids
19.1 39.33 54.63 27.62 7.48 13.17 4.94
Lycine 0.49 1.09 3.42 1.04 1.09 0.59 0.72
Glutamine 2.94 52.77 53.40 14.92 3.22 1.9 1.75
Non
Essentials
40.2 115.36 73.75 73.75 27.6 18.4 15.83
Amino acid profiles (averaged nM)
Suzuki et al., 2009
51. 51
Percentage of aspargine , other non-essential and essential
amino acids found in Tetraneura galls and intact leaves
%age
Aspergine
%age Non-
essential a.a.
%age Essential
a.a.
7
0
%
30%
3%
70%
Suzuki et al., 2009
52. Lepidopteron gall former
Betousa stylophora swinhoe (Thyrididae :
lepidoptera).
It is specific univoltine pest. (Masarrat et
al.,2007)
The newly emerged larva penetrates into the
new growth of twigs.
Typical gall formation –snake chamber flute.
52
53. InfestationofapicaltwiggallmakerB.stylophoraindifferent varieties/genotypes
Variaties/ Genotypes Gall formed twigs(%) No.of galled twigs
Anand -1 27.95 b
(23.11)
1.47 b
(1.68)
Guj-aonla-1 31.61 a
(28.36)
1.56 a
(1.94)
Anand-3 26.84 b
(21.50)
1.42 bc
(1.54)
LS-1 21.54 d
(14.92)
1.28 ef
(1.16)
Krishna 19.61 e
(12.61)
1.25 fg
(1.08)
Kanchan 12.93 g
(06.70)
1.14 h
(0.88)
Chakaiya 17.00 f
(10.28)
1.19 gh
(0.96)
LS-2 15.73 f
(08.97)
1.18 h
(0.96)
LS-3 19.79 e
(12.75)
1.27 f
(1.15)
LS-4 19.49 e
(12.58)
1.27 f
(1.14)
LS-5 24.17 c
(18.39)
1.30 ef
(1.22)
LS-6 25.26 c
(19.19)
1.39 cd
(1.45)
Banarsi 21.75 d
(15.06)
1.34 de
(1.32)
NA-7 10.50 h
(05.03)
1.06 i
(o.70)
Bharpoda et al.(2007)
54. REACTION OF DIFFERENT AONLA VARIETIES/GENOTYPES TO APICAL TWIG GALL
MAKER
….
Category of
resistance
Based on twig damage Based on no.of gall
Per cent twig Varieties/genotyp
es
No. of galls/twig Varieties/genotyp
es
Resistant (R) Less than
14.96(<x)
NA-7, Kanchan,
LS-2,Chakaiya,
LS-4, Krishna,
LS-3 and LS-1
Less than
1.23(<x)
NA-7, Kanchan,
LS-2,Chakaiya,
LS-4, Krishna,
LS-3,LS-1 and
LS-5
Moderately
resistant(MR)
14.96-28.08
(X+1sd)
Anand-3,
Banarsi,LS-5,LS-
6
1.23-1.55
(X+2sd)
Anand-3, Banarsi
and LS-6
Susceptible (S) 21.52-28.08
(x+2sd)
Anand-1, 1.55-1.89
(x+2sd)
Anand-1,
Highly
Susceptible(HS)
More than 28.08 Guj-aonla-1 More than 1.89 Guj-aonla-1
sd 6.56 0.32
Bharpoda et al.(2007)
55. 55
Elm Finger Gall - by a
mite Eriophyes ulmi
Maple Spindle Galls – by gall mite
Lime Nail Galls (Eriophyes tiliae tiliae)
Mite galls
56. Eriophyid Gall Mites
Poplar bud gall mite (Eriophyes parapopuli)
Ash flower gall mites(Eriophyes fraxiniflora)
Jessica and Wayne(2004)
Ample bladder gall mite: Vasates quadrupeds
Mapple spindle gall mite: Vasates aceriscrumena
Erinium gall mite: Eriophyes aceris
Pellitteri et al.1997
57. Aceria pongamia
This species produces solitary, elongate, spindle shaped
galls with the truncate apices on the upper surface of the
leaves of pongamia pinnata. These galls are irregular
greenish with internal cavity densely filled. This is during
rainy season.
Acalitus hibisci
The galls n Hibiscus vitifilius Linn.
Galls are globose, hollow , sessil, with rough texture outer
surface , they greenish brown externally with short fine
hairs internally. Gall width 1.5 to 3mm. This infestation
occurs through out the year.
Ghosh et al.(2002)
57
58. Management
Pesticide avoidance
Monitor/scout
Plant selection
Pruning
Plant removal
Use broad spectrum insecticides like
abamectin, bifenthrin .
Ryan (2011)
59. Aculops fuchsiae was described in 1972 from specimens discovered
on a Fuchsia sp. from Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
In 1981, an eriophyid mite new to North America.
This gall mite, Aculops fuchsiae Keifer, is believed to be native to
Brazil.
Ostoja and Eyre (2012)
60. Life cycle
The Aculops fuchsiae is with four stages: egg, larva, nymph and adult.
fecundity ~50 eggs ,
The TLC 21 days .
Carlton Koehler et al.( 2005)
k
The round bodies are mite eggs
62. Management
To destroy all infested plants, placing all
infested material into bags before disposal.
abamectin (e.g. Dynamec) and spirodiclofen
(Envidor). Envidor is approved for use indoor
and outdoor.
Use natural enemy Amblyseius californicus
Ostoja and Eyre (2012)
63. Abundance of bud galls caused by eriophyoidmites among host
trees Carpinus tschonoskii
Galls caused by Acalitus sp. (Eriophyidae)
among host trees Carpinus tschonoskii
(Betulaceae).
As tree size increased, the number of galls
increased.
tree characteristics such as number of terminal
buds, temporal pattern of shoot elongation and
reproductive status .
Ishihara et al.(2007)
65. 65
MSGM gall ostiole condition in relation
to (a) MSGM eggs and immatures
(b)Tarsonemus eggs, larvae an adult
Rajit Patankar et al.(2012)
Mean number of maple spindle gall mite
(MSGM) eggs in galls with (clear bars)
and without (shaded bars) tarsonemid
larvae from sugar maple canopy leaves
66. Tannic acid -economic products from galls
Eurasian cynipid gall- 65 percent tannic acid
Dyes - from galls. Turkey red dye is found in the "mad
apple" gall
For Natives of East Africa -galls as a source of dye for
tattooing
Some galls are aromatic and acidic in flavor and is
used with honey for cooking
66
Importance of Galls
67. Pliny(1997) stated that the Aleppo gall is able to dye hair
black
Inks - from some galls, such as the Aleppo gall produced by
Cynips gallae-tinctoriae on oaks
Inks from galls – In Legal documents (Laws, 1972)
USA, England, German and Danish Government have
specified formulas for inks using the Aleppo gall.
67
68. Cultural Control:
Pruning and destroying
Keep the plants healthy
Biological Control:
Complex of Natural enemies
Some Insects may feed on the galls for food and shelter
- For ex. Gall wasps, gall midges, clearwing borers, long
horned beetles, metallic wood-boring beetles, weevils, ants
and others
Chemical Control
Contact insecticide or target the immature with a systemic
A horticultural oil/ dormant can control aphid galls
68
Management of Galls
69. 69
Conclusion
Galls are species specific
Galls are of economic importance
Galls are of metabolic machinery/Physiological
Sink
In India, more concentrated studies are needed
to know how these galled tissues are formed
and what are the ecological factors affecting
the galls, etc.
Also, an intensive research should be conducted
whether these galls can be used in medical
fields for treating the human disorders and
can be used commercially
by reducing photosynthesis and seed production, discoloring foliage, changing plant architecture, causing defoliation, branch dieback and rarely plant death
Infestation by the gall midge results in severe flower drop, Infestation by the gall midge results in severe flower drop,reduction in yield, fruit size, seed number, production ofmalformed fruits and 42.10 % damage to floral parts in TamilNadu (Rangarajan and Mahadevan, 1974).reduction in yield, fruit size, seed number, production ofmalformed fruits and 42.10 % damage to floral parts in TamilNadu (Rangarajan and Mahadevan, 1974).
It prevents leaf buds from poplars, cottonwoods, and aspens are hosts to this mite. produces galls near the ends of new growth that are wrinkled and <1” in dia. They are irregular, lumpy, solid masses of plant tissue.developing into normal leaves and stems aless than one inch in diameter ) is one species prevalent in Nevada. 2.damage male trees by feeding on the blooms and causing galls to form. The galls are large, blackened, 1irregular masses.1. The galls develop on one side of the twig, but eventually encircle the base of the bud or shoot.Young galls are greenish, but older galls are red to brown
plants early in the season will allow quick detection and removal. Closely inspect the foliage., plant resistant varieties. Infected leaves and twigs can be pruned off. Burn or bag and dispose of infested tissues in the trash. Trees should be pruned in early spring when the tree is dormant and the mites are overwintering. Heavy infestations can be controlled with insecticides Dormant oil, carbaryl, dicofol, horticultural oils, and insecticidal soaps may be effective.
following insecticides are available for professional use at nurseries and should provide some control