The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord while the PNS contains nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body. Neurons are the basic functional units that transmit electrochemical signals while glial cells provide support and insulation. Information flows through the nervous system via sensory input, central processing, and motor output.
at a glance
Introduction
Terminologies used in the nervous system
Division of nervous system
Types of nerves- structure and functions
Brain
Cranial nerves
Spinal cord
Motor and sensory pathways of the spinal cord
Autonomic nervous system
Neuroanatomy | 1. Introduction to NeuroanatomyAhmed Eljack
This is the first lecture in neuroanatomy presented and taught by Ahmed Eljack to second level medical students at Alneelain University.
This lecture discussed the basics of neuroanatomy regarding anatomical terms, planes of section, anatomical divisions of the nervous system, and cells of the nervous system and their major functions.
at a glance
Introduction
Terminologies used in the nervous system
Division of nervous system
Types of nerves- structure and functions
Brain
Cranial nerves
Spinal cord
Motor and sensory pathways of the spinal cord
Autonomic nervous system
Neuroanatomy | 1. Introduction to NeuroanatomyAhmed Eljack
This is the first lecture in neuroanatomy presented and taught by Ahmed Eljack to second level medical students at Alneelain University.
This lecture discussed the basics of neuroanatomy regarding anatomical terms, planes of section, anatomical divisions of the nervous system, and cells of the nervous system and their major functions.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
1. Complete Info. of theComplete Info. of the
Nervous SystemNervous System
By- Dr. Armaan SinghBy- Dr. Armaan Singh
2. Basic division of the Nervous System
(although there is only oneone NS)
Central nervous system (“CNS”) –
occupies cranium and vertebral column
Brain
Spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (“PNS”)
Cranial nerves
Spinal nerves
Ganglia (clusters of cell bodies)
3. Terminology
Input: sensory = sensory input
Receptors monitor changes
Changes called “stimuli” (sing., stimulus)
Information sent by “afferent” nerves
Integration
Info processed
Decision made about what should be done
Output: motor = motor output
Effector organs (muscles or glands) activated
Effected by “efferent” nerves
Remember the difference between the English
words “affect” and “effect”
4. Terminology, continued
“The music affected her deeply.”
(Something is experienced: sensory)
“His protests had no effect.”
(Something is done or not done: motor)
6. Nervous tissue: 2 types of cells
1. Neurons
Excitable nerve cells
Transmit electrical signals
1. Supporting cells: neuroglia or just glia
Means “nerve glue”
7. Neurons
All have a cell body:
with nucleus and
cytoplasm
Cell bodies are in
clusters
CNS: clusters called
nuclei
PNS: clusters are
called ganglia
(are outside the CNS)
8. Neurons, continued
Can live for a lifetime (i.e. over 100 years)
Do not divide
(exception: recent neural stem cells identified)
Cannot replace themselves
High metabolic rate
Require continuous oxygen and glucose
Die within a few minutes without oxygen
9. Neuron “processes”
(armlike; extend from the cell body)
Nerve fibers = axons
Nerve impulse generators &
transmitters
One per neuron, although can
branch into “collaterals”
At terminal end branch a lot
(e.g. 10,000/terminus)
Receptive regions called
dendrites
Have receptors for
neurotransmitters (chemicals
released by other neurons)
Neurons may have many
10.
11. Neuron processes
Run through CNS in tracts of white matter
Run through the PNS forming peripheral
nerves
12. Synapses
Junctions between neurons
Information is passed (usually chemically)
Unidirectional
Presynaptic (toward synapse) vs postsynaptic (away
from synapse): most neurons function as both
Synaptic cleft (tiny gap)
17. Neurons by function/direction (relative to the CNS)
Sensory or afferent (toward CNS from sensory receptor in PNS)
Dendrites with specialized sensory receptors
(in skin, muscles, viscera, etc)
Cell bodies always in ganglion* outside CNS
Motor or efferent
From CNS to muscles, glands or viscera
Cell bodies almost always in CNS*
Interneurons*: 99.98% of neurons (within CNS; can be long,
e.g. travel down the spinal cord)
*
*
*
19. Nervous tissue: 2 types of cells
1. (Neurons and their processes: we just
did)
2. Supporting cells = neuroglia (“nerve
glue”) or just glial cells
CNS
Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Microglia
Ependymal cells
PNS
Schwann cells
Satellite cells
From earlier…
20. Supporting cells
Neuroglia usually refers to CNS ones
Just “glia” to both
Divide throughout life
Smaller and darker than neurons
Outnumber neurons 10 to 1
21. Neuroglia (CNS glial cells)
Astrocytes
Star shaped; the most numerous
Involved in metabolism & synapse formation
Microglia
Phagocytes
Ependymal cells
Line the cavities of CNS and spinal cord; cilia
Oligodendrocytes
Produce myelin sheaths in CNS (see later
slide)
22. PNS supporting cells
Satellite cells
Surround neuron cell body
Schwann cells
Form myelin (see next slide) in PNS
23. Myelin
Lipoprotein
Increases speed of conduction, large
axons
Are “insulation”
Prevent leakage of electric current
Layers with spaces (nodes of Ranvier)
between cells
Impulse “jumps” from node to node
“Unmyelinated” axons – smaller, slower
24. Myelin in the Peripheral and Central
Nervous Systems
In multiple sclerosis (MS), patches of myelin
are destroyed in the brain and spinal cord
25. Schwann cells
Myelin sheath
Neurolemma (nucleus
and most of cytoplasm
squeezed to outside)
26. Gray and White Matter of the CNS
(GROSS ANATOMY OF THE CNS)
Gray matter: gray-colored
Where neuron cell bodies are clustered
White matter: white-colored
Where millions of axons are running between
different part of CNS, in bundles of “tracts”
Remember, tracts are in CNS, vs nerves in PNS
White is from the myelin sheaths
27. Usual pattern of gray/white in CNS
White exterior to gray
Gray surrounds hollow
central cavity
Two regions with
additional gray called
“cortex”
Cerebrum: “cerebral cortex”
Cerebellum: “cerebellar cortex”
__________________
______________________________
________________________________
(pic from Marieb lab book p 263)
28. Gray/White in spinal cord
Hollow central cavity (“central
canal”)
Gray matter surrounds cavity
White matter surrounds gray
matter (white: ascending and
descending tracts of axons)
“H” shaped on cross section
Dorsal half of “H”: cell bodies of
interneurons
Ventral half of “H”: cell bodies of
motor neurons
No cortex
Dorsal (posterior)
Ventral (anterior)
gray
white
Central canal_____
Same pattern
29. From earlier: neuron processes
Run through CNS in tracts of white matter
Run through the PNS forming peripheral
nerves
30. Nerves are bundles of nerve fibers
(long axons) in connective tissue
To or from CNS to periphery
Classified according to direction, like
neurons
Mixed: carry both sensory (afferent) and
motor (efferent) fibers
All spinal nerves are mixed
Sensory or afferent nerves: to CNS
Motor or efferent nerves: ventral roots of
spinal cord
31. Interneurons
(99% of all neurons)
In gray matter:
They process received sensory information
They direct this info to specific regions of the CNS
They initiate the appropriate motor response
Via axons in white matter
They transmit info (sensory and motor) from one
region of the CNS to another
The structural link between the PNS and CNS occurs in the gray matter of the CNS
The simplest example of neuronal integration is the reflex arc (see next slide)
32. Reflex arcs: our “reflexes”
Fast, automatic,
involuntary
Somatic or visceral
Motor responses
to stimuli
Monosynaptic or
polysynaptic
5 components:
see right
Example of simplest, monosynapatic reflex
34. Basic neuronal
organization
Coronal section
of cerebrum
Cross sections
of spinal cord
and brains stem
Note gray
matter (brown)
and white
matter (tan)
Reflex arc and
information
processing are
shownAnterior view
35. Terminology for quiz
Neuron = nerve cell
Neuroglia = supporting cell
Nerve fiber = long axon
Nerve = collection of nerve fibers (axons) in PNS
Tract = collections of nerve fibers (axons) in CNS
Nucleus = cluster of cell bodies in CNS
Ganglia = cluster of cell bodies in PNS
New:
Unilateral: on one side
Ipsilateral: on the same side
Contralateral: on the opposite side
Remember also:
CNS vs PNS
Input: sensory: afferent: to brain
Output: motor : efferent: from brain
36. Pyramidal cells of cerebral cortex
This is where the “pyramidal” tract gets its name
(the main motor tract from the cerebral cortex);
also pyramids of medulla, pyramidal decussation