Five Models of Staff DevelopmentIndividually-guided staff development Observation/assessment Involvement in a development/improvement process Training InquiryIndividually-guided“I have come to feel that the only learning which significantly influences behavior is self-discovered, self-appropriated learning.”Rogers, 1969, p. 153

1. Five Models of Staff
Development
Sparks, Dennis and Loucks-Horsley, Susan(1989). Five Models of
Staff Development. Journal of Staff Development. 10 1-26.

2. Five Models of Staff Development
Individually-guided staff development
Observation/assessment
Involvement in a development/improvement process
Training
Inquiry

3. Individually-guided
“I have come to feel that the only learning
which significantly influences behavior is
self-discovered, self-appropriated
learning.”
Rogers, 1969, p. 153

4. Individually-guided - Defined
A process through which teachers plan for and pursue activities
they believe will promote their own learning.
Designed by the teacher
Teacher defined goals and activities

5. Individually-guided - Underlying
Assumptions
Individuals can judge their own needs and that
they are capable of self direction and self-
initiated learning.
Adults learn most efficiently when they initiate
and plan their learning rather than spend their
time in irrelevant activities of little interest.
Most motivated when they select their own
leaning goals based on their personal of their
needs.

6. Individually-guided - Theoretical
and Research Underpinnings
Adult learning theory
 Kidd (1973) and Knowles (1980)
 Increasingly self-directed
 Stimulated by real life tasks and problems
Stage Theory
 Levine (1989)
 Different stages of development have different needs

7. Individually-guided - Theoretical
and Research Underpinnings
Learning styles researchers
 Dunn & Dunn (1978); Gregorc (1979)
 Individuals differ in the way they process information and in the
manner they learn
Concerns-based Adoption Model (CBAM)
 Hall & Loucks (1978)
 As individuals learn new behaviors and change their practice, they
experience different concerns that in turn requires different types of
responses from staff developers

8. Individually-guided - Phases of
Activity
Identification of need or interest
Develop a plan to meet the need or interest
The learning activity
Assessment of whether the learning meets the identified need
or interest.

9. Observation/Assessment
“Feedback is the breakfast of champions”
Blanchard & Johnson
The One Minute Manager

10. Observation/Assessment
Many teachers receive little or no feedback and in some cases
they only observed once every three years.
May be a powerful staff development model but is perceived
by teachers as evaluation.
In reality other forms such as peer coaching and clinical
supervision fall into this category

11. Observation/Assessment -
Underlying Assumptions
“Reflection and analysis are central means of
professional growth”. Loucks-Horsley (1987, p. 61)
Reflection by an individual on his or her own
practice can be enhanced by another’s observation.
Observation and assessment of classroom teachers
can benefit both parties – the observer and the
observed
When teachers see positive results from their efforts
to change they are more apt to engage in
improvement

12. Observation/Assessment theoretical
and research underpinnings
Teacher Evaluation
 McGreal (1982)
 Classroom observation plays a key role
 Concern about reliability
 Two ways to increase reliability
 Narrow the range of what to look for (Madeline Hunter)
 Use a pre-conference to increase the knowledge of the observer
prior to the observation

13. Observation/Assessment -
Theoretical and Research
Underpinnings
Clinical Supervision
 Glatthorn (1984)
 Recommends clinical supervisors (or coaches) alternate unfocused
observations with focused observations
 Unfocused – observer usually takes verbatim notes on all
significant behaviors
 Data gathered is used to identify strengths and potential
problems that are discussed in a problem-solving feedback
conference
 Focused – observer gathers data related to identified problem

14. Observation/Assessment -
Theoretical and Research
Underpinnings
Clinical supervision
 Glickman (1986)
 Suggest that feedback be to provided teachers based on cognitive
levels.
 “low-abstract” receive direct conferences ( problem identification
and solution comes from the coach)
 “moderate-abstract” receive collaborative conferences (an exchange
of perceptions about problems and negotiated solutions)
 “high-abstract” receive nondirective approach (coach or supervisor
helps the teacher clarify problems and choose a course of action)

15. Observation/Assessment - Phases of
Activity
Pre-observation conference
Observation
Analysis of data
Post-observation conference
In some cases, analysis of the observation/assessment process

16. Involvement in a Development/
Improvement Process
Teachers are asked to:
Develop or adapt curriculum
Design programs
Engage in a systematic school improvement
Any or all of these with the focus of improving
classroom instruction and/or curriculum.
Successful completion requires the teacher to gain
additional knowledge to complete the task.
This model focuses on the combination of learnings
that result from the involvement of teacher in the
process.

17. Involvement in a Development/
Improvement Process - Underlying
Assumptions
Adults learn more easily when they have a need
to know or a problem to solve (Knowles, 1980).
People working closest to the job best understand
what is required to improve their performance.
Teachers acquire important knowledge or skills
through their involvement in school improvement
or curriculum development processes.

18. Involvement in a Development/ Improvement
Process - Theoretical and Research
Underpinnings
Curriculum Development
Joyce and Showers (1988)
“It has been well established that curriculum implementation is
demanding of staff development – essentially, without strong
staff development programs that are appropriately designed a
very low level of implementation occurs” (p. 44).
Glickman (1987)
Three ways teachers can modify a district’s curriculum guide
 Taking lists of objectives and recommended teaching methods and
turning them into a set of usable instructional guides
 Adapt the guide to students’ special needs
 Enhance the guide by developing optional enrichment units.

19. Involvement in a Development/ Improvement
Process - Theoretical and Research
Underpinnings
Curriculum Development
 Glatthorn
 Activities should be done in groups thus teachers will become more
cohesive and will share ideas about teaching and learning in general,
as well as, on the development task at hand.
School Improvement
 Loucks-Horsley and Hergert (1985)
 Described seven action steps in a school improvement process that are
based in research on implementation of new practices in schools
 Cohen (1981)
 Research on effective schools underpins an approach to school
improvement through staff development

20. Curriculum Development and School
Improvement - Phases of Activity
Identification of a problem or need by an
individual, a group of teachers, a school faculty,
or a district administrator.
Response is formulated
May be formal or informal
Response may be immediate or may require brainstorming
sessions
May require consultation with a larger group (i.e., whole
faculty)
Specific knowledge or skills may be required
Implement or produce the product

21. Training
… the purpose of providing training in any practice is not
simply to generate the external visible teaching “moves” that
bring that practice to bear in the instructional setting but to
generate the conditions that enable the practice to be selected
and used appropriately and integratively …a major, perhaps the
major, dimension of teaching skill is cognitive in nature
Showers, Joyce, and Bennett (1987, p. 85-86)

22. Training
Many educators equate training with staff development
Training session is conducted with a clear set of objectives or
learner outcomes that may include
 Awareness or knowledge
 Skill development

23. Training - Underlying Assumptions
There are behaviors and techniques that are worthy of
replication by teachers in the classroom
That teachers can change their behaviors and learn to replicate
behaviors in the classroom that were not previously in their
repertoire

24. Training - Theoretical and Research
Underpinnings
Training Model
 Joyce and Showers (1988)
 Depending on the desired outcomes, training might include:
 Exploration of theory
 Demonstration or modeling of a skill
 Practice of a skill under simulated conditions
 Feedback about performance
 Coaching in the workplace
 Combination of components is necessary if the outcome is skill
development

25. Training - Theoretical and Research
Underpinnings
Training Model
Sparks
Discussion and peer observation are important as training
activities
Loucks-Horsley et al. (1987); Sparks (1983)
Training sessions spaced one or more weeks apart in order to
allow for improved comprehension and so teachers have
opportunities for classroom practice and peer coaching are
shown to be more effective than “one-shot” sessions
Sparks (1983); Wu (1987) and Wood and Kleine (1987)
Point out the value of teachers as trainers of their peers

26. Training - Phases of activity
Involve participants in the planning
Allow for interaction in the training session among peers
After training, in-classroom assistance in the form of peer
observation and coaching is critical to the transfer of more
complex teaching skills

27. Inquiry
“the most effective avenue for professional development
is cooperative study by teachers themselves into a
problem and issues arising from their attempts to make
practice consistent with their educational values…[The
approach] aims to give greater control over what is to
count as valid educational knowledge to teachers.”
(Ingvarson, 1987, p. 15.17)

28. Inquiry
Teacher inquiry may be a solitary activity, be
done in small groups, or be conducted by school
faculty.
May be formal or informal
May occur in the classroom, at a teacher center,
or results from a university class
Research is an important activity in which
teachers should be engaged, although they rarely
participate in it other than as “subjects.”

29. Inquiry - Underlying Assumptions
Teachers are intelligent, inquiring individuals
with legitimate expertise and important
experience.
Teachers are inclined to search for data to answer
pressing questions and to reflect on the data to
formulate solutions.
Teachers will develop new understanding as they
formulate their questions and collect their own
data to answer them. (Loucks-Horsley et al.,
1987)

30. Inquiry - Theoretical and Research
Underpinnings
Inquiry-oriented teachers
 Dewey (1933)
 Need for teachers to take a “reflective action.”
 Zeichner (1983)
 Advocacy for “teachers as action researchers,” “teacher scholars.”
“teacher innovators,” “self-monitoring teachers,” and “teachers as
participant observers.”

31. Inquiry - Theoretical and Research
Underpinnings
Interactive research
 Tikunoff (1983)
 Interactive research and development promotes inquiry into the
questions they are asking through close work with researchers (who
help with methodology) and staff developers (who help with the
creation of ways of sharing their results with others).
 Lieberman (1986)
 Teachers server on collaborative teams pursuing answers to
schoolwide rather than classroom problems
 Watts (1985)
 Role of collaborative research, classroom action research, and teacher
support groups in encouraging teacher inquiry.
 Sparks (1985)
 Use of action research to help teachers better relate research on
teaching to their unique classrooms.

32. Inquiry - Theoretical and Research
Underpinnings
Action Research
Glickman (1986)
Advocates action research in the form of quality circles,
problem-solving groups, and school improvement projects as a
means to develop teacher thought.
Cross (1987)
Proposed classroom research as a means to evaluate their own
teaching
Glatthorn (1987)
Action research by teams of teachers as a peer-centered option
for promoting professional growth.

33. Inquiry - Phases of Activity
Identify a problem
Explore ways of collecting data that may range from existing
theoretical and research literature to gathering original
classroom or school data
Analyze and interpret these data
Changes are made and new data are gathered to determine the
effects of the intervention