1) Externalities occur when the actions of individuals have unintended impacts on third parties. This can result in market failures when private costs/benefits differ from social costs/benefits.
2) For negative externalities like pollution, the private market equilibrium produces too much from a social perspective, since private costs are below social costs. Taxes can internalize these external costs.
3) For positive externalities like education, the private market equilibrium produces too little from a social perspective, since private benefits are below social benefits. Subsidies can internalize these external benefits.
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Subtopics
Intro to Externalities
Marginal Analysis
Consumption Externalities
Production Externalities
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2. Market Failure
One type of market failure:
Externality, the uncompensated impact of one
person’s actions on the well-being of a bystander.
Self-interested buyers and sellers neglect the external
costs or benefits of their actions on society,
so the market outcome is not efficient for everyone.
Externalities can be negative or positive,
depending on whether impact on bystander is
adverse or beneficial. (good or bad)
3. Textbook definition:
- is a cost or a benefit that arises from:
Production that falls on someone other
than the producer.
Consumption that falls on someone other
than the consumer.
Shorter definition:
- the uncompensated无补偿的 impact of
one person’s actions on the well-being
of a bystander or third party.
Easier definition:
- Stuff that affects other people.
Externalities
5. Negative Externalities - Unintended costs.
- A production or consumption
activity that creates an
external cost.Negative consumption
Negative production
1.) Externality Types
19. Means an additional one, the
measurement from one unit to the next.
最后的东西之一
Marginal Benefits VS. Marginal Costs
边际效益 针对 边际成本
(MB) (MC)
If MB > MC = It is worth doing 这是值得的
If MB = MC = It may be worth doing “a wash” 收支平衡
If MB < MC = Not worth doing 这是不值得的
Also called Cost/Benefit analysis
Marginal Thinking
20. – Training your brain to
understand value
训练你的大脑明白什么意思值
Marginal Benefit
Marginal Thinking
The value of one more unit of a good or service
is its marginal benefit.can be measured as the
maximum price that people
are willing to pay for
another unit of the good or
service.
Demand and Marginal Benefit
- Buyers distinguish 区别 between value and price.
- Value is what the buyer gets.
- Price is what the buyer pays.
21. If we looked at a larger
market with many more
buyers, each would be a
step on this curve
It looks just like a
demand curve doesn’t it
That’s because it is!
D = MB
0
750
1500
2250
3000
3750
4500
5250
6000
0 100200300400500
P
Q
Demand = Marginal
Benefit
Remember this?
22. Means an additional one, the
measurement from one unit to the next.
最后的东西之一
Marginal Benefits VS. Marginal Costs
边际效益 针对 边际成本
(MB) (MC)
If MB > MC = It is worth doing 这是值得的
If MB = MC = It may be worth doing “a wash” 收支平衡
If MB < MC = Not worth doing 这是不值得的
Also called Cost/Benefit analysis
Marginal Thinking
23. Means an additional one, the
measurement from one unit to the next.
最后的东西之一
Marginal Social Benefits VS. Marginal Social Costs
边际效益 针对 边际成本
(MB) (MC)
If MSB > MSC = It is worth doing 这是值得的
If MSB = MSC = It may be worth doing “a wash” 收支平衡
If MSB < MSC = Not worth doing 这是不值得的
Also called Cost/Benefit analysis
Marginal Thinking
24. ( MPC ) Marginal Private Cost
( MC )
- The cost of producing an
additional unit of a good or
service that is borne by the
producer of it.*Supply =MC = MPC
2.) The Graphs
25. P
Q
MB
P
MC = MPC
Marginal Costs =
Marginal Private
Costs
EQ
MC - Typical market
equilibrium that
we have studied so
far.
2.) The Graphs
26. ( MPC ) Marginal Private Cost
( MC )
2.) The Graphs
( MEC ) Marginal External Cost - The cost of producing
an additional unit of a
good or service that
falls on people other
than the producer.
*** The more
produced the
higher the costs.
28. ( MPC ) Marginal Private Cost
( MC )
2.) The Graphs
( MEC ) Marginal External Cost
( MSC ) Marginal Social Cost
+
=
- The marginal cost
incurred by the
entire society
29. P
Q
MB
MSC
Marginal Social
Costs
MPC + MEC = MSC
The marginal cost
incurred by the
entire society –
everyone – the
people that
produce it and all
other third parties
affected by it
External
cost
MSC
MC
2.) The Graphs
31. P
Q
P
Deadweight
loss occurs
for society at
MPB.
The marginal cost
incurred by the
entire society –
everyone – the
people that
produce it and all
other third parties
affected by it
EQ
MSC
MC
MB=MPB
P1
EQ1
2.) The Graphs
32. 0
1
2
3
4
5
0 10 20 30 Q
(gallons)
P
$
The market for gasoline
Another Example of a Negative Externality:
Supply (private cost)
External cost
= value of the negative
impact
on bystanders
= $1 per gallon
(value of harm
from smog, greenhouse
gases)
Social cost
= private + external cost
33. 0
1
2
3
4
5
0 10 20 30 Q
(gallons)
P
$
The market for gasoline
D
S
The socially
optimal quantity
is 20 gallons.
At any Q < 20,
value of additional gas
is higher then social
cost.
At any Q > 20,
social cost of the
last gallon is
greater than its value
to society.
25
Demand
Private
cost
Social
Cost
Another Example of a Negative Externality:
34. 0
1
2
3
4
5
0 10 20 30 Q
(gallons)
P
$
The market for gasoline
D
S
The socially
optimal quantity
is 20 gallons.
At any Q < 20,
value of additional gas
is higher then social
cost.
25
Demand
And there is a
deadweight loss
Private
cost
Social
Cost
Another Example of a Negative Externality:
35. 0
1
2
3
4
5
0 10 20 30 Q
(gallons)
P
$
The market for gasoline
D
S
The socially
optimal quantity
is 20 gallons.
At any Q > 20,
social cost of the
last gallon is
greater than its value
to society.
25
Demand
And there is a
deadweight loss
Private
cost
Social
Cost
Another Example of a Negative Externality:
37. ( MPB ) Marginal Private Benefits
( MB )
2.) The Graphs
- The benefit of an
additional unit of a
good or service that
the consumer of
that good or service
receives.
*Demand = MB = MPB
38. P
Q
MB
P
MB = MPB
Marginal Benefits =
Marginal Private
Benefits
- Typical market
equilibrium that
we have studied so
far.
EQ
MC
2.) The Graphs
39. ( MPB ) Marginal Private Benefits
( MB )
2.) The Graphs
-The benefit of an additional
unit of a good or service that
people other than the
consumer of the good or
service enjoy.
( MEB ) Marginal External Benefit
*** The more consumed the
benefits diminish.
40. P
Q
P
MEB
Marginal External
Benefits
- At any given point
the external
benefits of society
are greater then
that of the
individual
- As more is
produced the
benefits typically
become smaller
EQ
External
benefit
MC
MB
2.) The Graphs
41. ( MPB ) Marginal Private Benefits
( MB )
2.) The Graphs
( MEB ) Marginal External Benefit
- The marginal
benefit enjoyed
by society.
( MSB ) Marginal Social Benefit
+
=
42. P
Q
P
MSB
Marginal Social
Benefits
- The cost of
producing an
additional unit of a
good or service
that falls on people
other than the
producer.
EQ
External
benefit
MC
MB
MSB
MPB + MEB = MSC
2.) The Graphs
43. P
Q
P
EQ
MC
MSB
P1
EQ1
MB = MPB
The MPB production
point is not
efficient from a
societal view, not
enough is
produced.
MC = MSB
is the efficient
production point from
a societal view.
2.) The Graphs
45. Negative Externality
- Market quantity larger than socially desirable
- Overproduction
Positive Externality
- Market quantity smaller than socially desirable
- Underproduction
Next:
To remedy the problem:
“internalize the externality” 内部化的外部性
tax goods with negative externalities
subsidize goods with positive externalities
Create government regulation and laws to prevent the problem
Effects of Externalities: Summary
47. Means an additional one, the
measurement from one unit to the next.
最后的东西之一
Marginal Benefits VS. Marginal Costs
边际效益 针对 边际成本
(MB) (MC)
If MB > MC = It is worth doing 这是值得的
If MB = MC = It may be worth doing “a wash” 收支平衡
If MB < MC = Not worth doing 这是不值得的
Also called Cost/Benefit analysis
Marginal Thinking
48. Means an additional one, the
measurement from one unit to the next.
最后的东西之一
Marginal Social Benefits VS. Marginal Social Costs
边际效益 针对 边际成本
(MB) (MC)
If MSB > MSC = It is worth doing 这是值得的
If MSB = MSC = It may be worth doing “a wash” 收支平衡
If MSB < MSC = Not worth doing 这是不值得的
Also called Cost/Benefit analysis
Marginal Thinking
50. P
Q
P
Deadweight
loss occurs
for society at
MPB.
The marginal cost
incurred by the
entire society –
everyone – the
people that
produce it and all
other third parties
affected by it
EQ
MSC
MC
MB=MPB
P1
EQ1
2.) The Graphs
51. P
Q
P
EQ
MC
MSB
P1
EQ1
MB = MPB
The MPB production
point is not
efficient from a
societal view, not
enough is
produced.
MC = MSB
is the efficient
production point from
a societal view.
2.) The Graphs
53. Goods with Externalities
Demerit Goods Goods with negative
externalities and considered
socially undesirable.
Merit Goods Goods with positive
externalities of which more is
desired then would typically
be produced.