The document summarizes the process of fermentation of alcohol. It describes how fermentation converts glucose into ethanol and carbon dioxide through the action of yeast enzymes in an oxygen-free environment. The document then outlines the steps of an experiment to produce ethanol through fermentation of sugar water, including preparing the yeast and sugar solution, sealing it for two weeks, distilling the product to obtain 95.6% ethanol, and further distilling using molecular sieves to reach 100% ethanol. Key reactions and products of fermentation are also summarized.
Prezentacija - Andrija Mohorovičić - Tornado u Novskoj Gordana Divic
Prezentacija pripremljena za priredbu kojom smo obilježili projekt "Andrija Mohorovičić - Tornado u Novskoj". Projekt Srednje škole Novska vodila je profesorica Gordana Divić u suradnji s učenicima iz svih razreda gimnazije.
The document summarizes the process of fermentation of alcohol. It describes how fermentation converts glucose into ethanol and carbon dioxide through the action of yeast enzymes in an oxygen-free environment. The document then outlines the steps of an experiment to produce ethanol through fermentation of sugar water, including preparing the yeast and sugar solution, sealing it for two weeks, distilling the product to obtain 95.6% ethanol, and further distilling using molecular sieves to reach 100% ethanol. Key reactions and products of fermentation are also summarized.
Prezentacija - Andrija Mohorovičić - Tornado u Novskoj Gordana Divic
Prezentacija pripremljena za priredbu kojom smo obilježili projekt "Andrija Mohorovičić - Tornado u Novskoj". Projekt Srednje škole Novska vodila je profesorica Gordana Divić u suradnji s učenicima iz svih razreda gimnazije.
Tetrodotoxin is a potent neurotoxin found in marine animals like pufferfish. It blocks sodium channels, preventing action potentials and paralyzing neurons and muscles. Poisoning symptoms range from numbness to respiratory failure and death. The toxin is produced by various bacteria in marine life. While rare, poisoning is more common where pufferfish is regularly consumed. There is no antidote, so treatment focuses on supportive care and monitoring until the toxin is cleared from the body.
1) The Sgarbossa criteria provide guidelines for diagnosing acute myocardial infarction in patients with left bundle branch block (LBB) or ventricular paced rhythm on electrocardiogram (ECG), as these conditions can obscure ECG changes.
2) The original Sgarbossa criteria included three criteria involving concordant or discordant ST segment changes greater than 1mm. The modified criteria expanded this to include proportionally excessive discordant ST elevation.
3) Different types of STEMI are described based on the location of maximal ST elevation, including anterior, inferior, lateral, posterior, and right ventricular STEMI, each with characteristic ECG patterns.
This document discusses interventricular conduction delay and raised intracranial pressure as seen on electrocardiograms (ECGs). It defines interventricular conduction delay and lists various causes including fascicular blocks, bundle branch blocks, ventricular hypertrophy, dilatation, electrolyte abnormalities, toxins, pre-excitation, and arrhythmogenic cardiac conditions. It then discusses raised intracranial pressure and the associated ECG findings of widespread T-wave inversions, QT prolongation, and bradycardia as part of the Cushing reflex, indicating imminent brainstem herniation. Massive intracranial hemorrhages such as subarachnoid hemorrhage are the most common causes
The document discusses various electrolyte abnormalities and their ECG manifestations, including hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia, hyperkalemia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesia, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, and hypothermia. For each condition, it provides the normal and abnormal ranges for the electrolyte levels and describes the associated ECG changes such as peaked T waves, QT prolongation, low QRS voltage, bradycardia, and arrhythmias. The document serves as a reference for clinicians to recognize ECG patterns caused by electrolyte and endocrine abnormalities.
1) Fascicular ventricular tachycardia is the most common form of idiopathic ventricular tachycardia originating from the left ventricle. It typically presents in young patients without structural heart disease.
2) It has characteristic ECG features including a monomorphic ventricular rhythm with fusion complexes and AV dissociation. The QRS duration is between 100-140 ms with a short RS interval of 60-80 ms. It also shows a right bundle branch block pattern and axis deviation.
3) Posterior fascicular ventricular tachycardia, which arises near the left posterior fascicle, shows a right bundle branch block pattern with left axis deviation. Anterior fascicular ventricular tachycardia arises
The document discusses several electrocardiogram (ECG) findings and rhythms including ectopic atrial tachycardia, atrial tachycardia, electrical alternans seen in massive pericardial effusion which produces low QRS voltage, electrical alternans and tachycardia, escape rhythms like junctional escape rhythms where the pacemaker rate decreases down the conducting system, and ventricular escape rhythms. It also discusses the terminology of junctional rhythms and includes literature references.
The document discusses De Winter's T waves, which are characterized by three key findings on ECG: upsloping ST depression in precordial leads, tall symmetric T waves in precordial leads, and ST elevation in aVR. It also summarizes the ECG patterns seen in dextrocardia, including right axis deviation, positive complexes in aVR, and dominant S waves in precordial leads. Finally, it outlines the ECG features of digoxin effect and toxicity, such as biphasic T waves, shortened QT, and the dysrhythmia of supraventricular tachycardia with a slow ventricular response seen in digoxin toxicity.
Massive carbamazepine overdose of more than 50 mg/kg can cause cardiotoxicity due to sodium channel blockade, which may be detectable on ECG as subtle QRS widening or first-degree AV block. Dilated cardiomyopathy is characterized by ventricular dilatation and reduced ejection fraction below 40%, commonly presenting with symptoms of biventricular failure. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease can cause prominent P waves in inferior leads, exaggerated ST segments, low QRS voltage especially in V4-V6, and may show an SV1-SV2-SV3 pattern.
- Benign early repolarization shows concave ST elevation less than 2 mm with no progression over time, most prominent in V2-V5. Notching at the J-point and concordant T-waves are also seen.
- Beta-blocker and calcium channel blocker toxicity can cause prolonged PR interval and bradycardia. Propranolol toxicity specifically causes QRS widening and positive R' wave in aVR. Sotalol toxicity causes QT prolongation and risk of Torsades de Pointes.
- Bifascicular block is a combination of right bundle branch block with either left anterior or posterior fascicular block, and can be caused by ischemia, hypertension or other
This document discusses atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT). It states that AVNRT is the most common cause of palpitations in structurally normal hearts. It can occur spontaneously or be provoked. There are three main types - slow-fast AVNRT which is most common and shows no visible P waves, fast-slow AVNRT where P waves are visible after the QRS, and slow-slow AVNRT where P waves appear before the QRS. The tachycardia rate is typically between 140-280 beats per minute and is regular. AVNRT occurs due to a reentry circuit within the atrioventricular node.
This document summarizes different types of atrioventricular (AV) blocks seen on electrocardiograms (ECGs). It describes first-degree AV block as a PR interval over 200ms. Second-degree AV block, Mobitz type I (Wenckebach phenomenon) shows progressive PR prolongation until a blocked pulse. Mobitz type II shows intermittent non-conducted pulses without PR prolongation. High-grade second-degree AV block has a P:QRS ratio of 3:1 or higher, with an extremely slow ventricular rate. Third-degree or complete heart block shows no relationship between atrial and ventricular rates. Causes include myocardial infarction, drugs, and conduction system disease. Treatment ranges from
This document provides an overview of several cardiac arrhythmias and conditions including:
1. Accelerated idioventricular rhythm (AIVR), which results when an ectopic ventricular pacemaker exceeds the sinus node rate. AIVR is seen post-myocardial infarction and features a regular rhythm between 50-110 bpm with three or more QRS complexes.
2. Atrial flutter, a supraventricular tachycardia caused by a reentry circuit in the right atrium with a rate of around 300 bpm. The ventricular rate is determined by AV conduction.
3. Atrial fibrillation, the most common sustained arrhythmia characterized by irregularly irregular rhythm without
1) Cardiorenal syndrome commonly occurs in patients with acute decompensated heart failure and is associated with poor outcomes. It involves a complex interaction between hemodynamic alterations and activation of neurohormonal systems that affects both the heart and kidneys.
2) There are five types of cardiorenal syndrome classified based on the inciting cardiac or renal event and the affected secondary organs. Type 1 is acute cardiorenal syndrome due to acute worsening of cardiac function leading to kidney injury.
3) Loop diuretics are the mainstay of treatment for congestion in heart failure but aggressive diuresis may worsen kidney function. Other therapies discussed include inotropic agents, vasopressin antagonists
Categorization of risks and benefits (food additives)Domina Petric
The document discusses various categories of risks associated with food, including foodborne hazards of microbial origin, nutritional hazards, environmental contaminants, naturally occurring toxicants, and food additives. It notes that foodborne diseases of microbial origin pose the greatest risks. Nutritional hazards can arise from deficiencies or excesses. Environmental contaminants can enter the food supply from industrial or natural sources. Naturally occurring toxicants are found in some foods. Food additives present minimal risks when consumed within permitted levels. The document also outlines categories of potential benefits from foods, including health benefits, supply benefits, hedonic benefits, and convenience benefits.
This document discusses the benefits and risks of food additives. The benefits include making foods safer, more nutritious, and longer lasting through the use of preservatives and antioxidants. Additives also provide greater variety of foods and lower prices. However, there are also risks. There is a lack of data on the long term health effects of combinations of additives. Some additives are associated with "junk foods" that are low in nutrients. While direct toxic effects are unlikely at legal levels, some individuals may have hypersensitivity reactions. Some animal studies also indicate potential cancer and reproductive issues, but no direct evidence in humans. The risks must be weighed against the benefits on a case by case basis.
The document discusses different types of food additives and how they are classified. It describes preservatives like antimicrobials, antioxidants and antibrowning agents. Nutritional additives add vitamins, minerals and fiber. Coloring agents and flavors are used to enhance appearance and taste. Texturizing agents modify texture and mouthfeel. Additives are identified by International Numbering System codes or E numbers from the European Union.
Effector phase in immune mediated drug hypersensitivityDomina Petric
This document discusses antibody-mediated and T cell-mediated drug hypersensitivity. It describes how drugs can act as haptens and stimulate T and B cell responses, leading to IgE production and immediate hypersensitivity reactions. It also discusses the p-i concept where drugs can directly interact with T cell receptors and cause reactions without prior sensitization, particularly in the skin which contains many resident immune cells.
1. Small molecule drugs can become immunogenic by undergoing bioactivation into chemically reactive metabolites that covalently bind to proteins, forming hapten-carrier complexes.
2. These complexes are then processed and presented by antigen presenting cells to T cells, stimulating an adaptive immune response.
3. Whether a humoral or cellular immune response develops depends on which proteins are modified by the hapten and whether they are soluble or cell-bound.
2. Vaskularizacija dušnika
• Krvne žile dušnika pristupaju na lateralnu
stranu dušnika.
• Prilikom kirurškog prepariranja dušnika
uvijek se pristupa s njegove prednje ili
stražnje strane.
• Prepariranjem dušnika u medijalnoj liniji se
izbjegava ozljeda povratnog živca.
3. Kongenitalne anomalije dušnika
• Agenezija (aplazija) i atrezija dušnika su iznimno
rijetke anomalije.
• Obično završavaju smrtnim ishodom odmah poslije
rođenja.
• Katkada postoji uski kanal kojim je uspostavljena
komunikacija s jednjakom što omogućuje slabe
respiracije.
• Navedeno stanje također završava smrću.
• Atrezija dušnika je najčešće na prijelazu grkljana u
dušnik.
• Teoretski je moguće spasiti dijete hitnom
traheotomijom.
4. Kongenitalna stenoza dušnika
• To je uz TE fistule najčešća kongenitalna anomalija
dušnika.
• Može biti posljedica razvoja fibroznih membranskih
pregrada, ili pak traheomalacije izazvane
kompresijom vaskularnim prstenom (dvostruki luk
aorte) ili anomalnom plućnom arterijom.
• Simptomi se javljaju neposredno nakon rođenja ili
tijekom prvih nekoliko tjedana nakon infekcije
gornjeg respiratornog sustava.
• Blaže stenoze: dispneja u naporu ili tijekom noći.
• Jače stenoze: udisajna i izdisajna dispneja je trajna i
ne ublažava se u uspravnom položaju, uz stridor.
5. generalizirana hipoplazija s difuznim suženjem
dušnika nastalim zbog spajanja stražnjih lukova
hrskavice
fuziformna stenoza s najužim dijelom dušnika u
visini bifurkacije
segmentna stenoza dušnika nastala zbog
hipoplazije membranozne stijenke, razvojem
fibroznog prstena ili prekomjernim stvaranjem
hrskavičnog tkiva
Tipovi kongenitalne stenoze dušnika
6. Traheomalacija
• Rijetka kongenitalna stenoza dušnika izazvana
izostalim razvojem ili deformacijom hrskavica.
• Dilatacija suženja i traheotomija su mjere kojima se
odgađa resekcijski zahvat u dojenačkoj dobi.
• Resekcija stenotičnog segmenta
i rekonstrukcija dušnika T-T
anastomozom je terapija izbora.
• Ekstrinzične stenoze dušnika iziskuju
korekciju vaskularnih anomalija.
• Kongenitalna suženja izazvana
membranskom stenozom se mogu
riješiti i endoskopski.
7. Kongenitalna dilatacija dušnika
• Traheomegalija je rijetka anomalija.
• Obično je praćena fibrocističnom bolešću
gušterače.
• Promjer dušnika je
oko 2,5 cm do 6 cm.
• Tom su anomalijom
često zahvaćeni i glavni
pa i lobarni bronhi.
8. Divertikuli dušnika i traheokela
• Divertikuli dušnika su rijetki.
• Nalaze se u oko 2% novorođenčadi.
• Obično su asimptomatski.
• Rijetki su simptomi izazvani razvojem infekcije ili
kompresijom povratnog živca, odn. jednjaka.
• Mogu biti solitarni i multipli.
• Najčešće polaze na mjestu spajanja membranske i
hrskavične stijenke.
• Traheokela je divertikul koji ne komunicira s lumenom
dušnika.
• S vremenom se povećava te izaziva tegobe zbog
kompresije dušnika ili jednjaka.
10. Tumori dušnika
• Primarni zloćudni tumori dušnika su vrlo rijetki.
• Čine manje od 1% svih zloćudnih tumora.
• Znatno je češće izravno širenje primarnih tumora iz
okoline: tumor bronha, grkljana, jednjaka i štitnjače.
• Od svih tumora dušnika 80% ih je maligno.
• Najčešći su tumori pločastih stanica i adenoidni cistični
karcinom.
• Planocelularni karcinom je najčešći zloćudni tumor
dušnika.
• Javlja se u dobi od 50 do 70 g., češće u muškaraca.
• Obično se pojavljuje u donjoj trećini dušnika (dobro
ograničena egzofitična ili ulcerirajuća tvorba).
• Tumor se odlikuje brzim rastom, širenjem u okolne limfne
čvorove te zahvaćanjem medijastinalnih struktura.
11. Tumori dušnika
• Adenoidni cistični karcinom se obično pojavljuje
u gornjoj trećini dušnika.
• Sluznica nad njim je često nezahvaćena.
• Raste sporo, širi se pretežno submukozno i izvan
makroskopski vidljiva tumora.
• Sklon je opetovanom lokalnom javljanju poslije
nekoliko godina.
• Najčešće metastazira u pluća, rjeđe u limfne
čvorove, jetru, mozak ili kosti.
• Znatno su rjeđi neuroendokrini tumori (tipični i
atipični karcinoid te tumor malih stanica).
• Iznimno su rijetki hondrosarkom i fibrosarkom.
12. Tumori dušnika
• Najčešći benigni tumori su papilomi, fibromi,
hondromi i hemangiomi.
Simptomi:
• lokalni podražaj (suhi podražajni kašalj s ili bez
hemoptiza)
• opstrukcija dišnog puta (dispneja, stridor)
• širenje u lokalne strukture (promuklost, disfagija,
krvarenje ako se tumor širi u velike krve žile)
Diferencijalna dg.: KOPB, astma
• Smetnje ventilacije distalnih dijelova dišnog sustava
su vrlo česte.
• Zbog hipoventilacije česte su recidivirajuće upale
pluća.
13. Liječenje
• Osnovno načelo je segmentna resekcija dušnika
kojom se radikalno odstranjuje patološki
supstrat do u zdravo tkivo.
• Rekonstrukcija dušnika se provodi T-T
anastomozom.
• Primjereno cijeljenje anastomoze je osnovni
čimbenik uspjeha operacije.
• Anastomoza ne smije biti pod tenzijom.
• Nježna segmentalna vaskularizacija mora biti
očuvana.
• Moguća je resekcija gotovo polovice dušnika u
odrasle osobe.
14. Kirurški pristupi na dušnik
• Ovise o smještaju i dužini lezije.
• Standardna kolarna incizija ili transcervikalni pristup:
za segmentnu resekciju i primarnu rekonstrukciju
vratnog dijela dušnika.
• Tim pristupom je moguća resekcija dušnika do 4,5 cm
uz stvaranje anastomoze bez dodatne mobilizacije.
• Vratnu se inciziju može proširiti vertikalno i učiniti
gornju medijanu sternotomiju.
• Proširenje sternotomijske incizije udesno, kroz IV. ik.
prostor je potrebno kad je patološki supstrat smješten
na prijelazu vratnog u medijastinalni dio dušnika.
• Desna torakotomija služi za pristup na donji segment i
bifurkaciju dušnika.
15. Liječenje
• Ako je tumor lokalno uznapredovao, ili postoje
metastaze u limfnim čvorovima, ili je dužina
odsječka zahvaćenog dušnika prevelika,
indicirana je radioterapija.
• Palijativni endoskopski zahvati: rekanalizacija
dušnika primjenom lasera, argonplazme,
krioterapije ili fotodinamske terapije.
• Endoproteze (stentovi)!
• Neke benigne tumore (lipom, solitarni papilom i
hamartom) je moguće odstraniti bronhoskopom.
16. Stečene stenoze dušnika
• Postintubacijska stenoza je najčešća stečena
stenoza dušnika.
• Nastaje kao posljedica ETI ili postavljene kanile
kroz traheostomu u bolesnika na mehaničkoj
ventilaciji.
• Stenoza može biti kasna posljedica tupe ili
penetrantne ozljede dušnika, ili iznimno rijetko
kao posljedica upale.
• Upalni uzroci su TBC, difterija, histoplazmoza,
rinosklerom, sarkoidoza, recidivirajući
polihondritis, amiloidoza i traheopatia
osteochondropatica.
17. Stečene stenoze dušnika
• Stenoza u subglotičnom području može nastati i
poslije konikotomije ili zbog ozljede krikoidne
hrskavice nakon visoko postavljene
traheostome.
• Nakon dugotrajnijeg djelovanja povišenog tlaka
na stijenku dušnika, može doći do perforacije
membranske ili hrskavične stijenke dušnika.
• Može nastati ezofagotrahealna ili traheo-
vaskularna fistula (truncus brachiocephalicus).
18. Postintubacijska stenoza dušnika
• U 80% slučajeva simptomi će se razviti unutar 3
mjeseca poslije ekstubacije.
• Dispneja u naporu je najvažniji simptom u bolesnika s
blažom opstrukcijom dušnika (<50% lumena dušnika
je suženo).
• Jače suženje (75% lumena) uzrok je stridoroznog
disanja i pri najmanjem naporu.
• Ako je lumen dušnika promjera 3 do 6 mm, postojat
će stridor i u mirovanju.
• Retencija sekreta pogoršava stanje bolesnika.
• Obično se stridor pojačava tijekom udisaja.
• U slučaju popratne traheomalacije stridor se može
pojačavati i tijekom izdisaja.
19. Postintubacijska stenoza dušnika
• Često se javlja i simptom suhog kašlja
metalnog zvuka.
• Spirometrija pokazuje opstruktivni tip
poremećaja ventilacije.
• Traheoskopski pregled fleksibilnim
bronhoskopom: funkcijski status glasnica,
promjer dušnika, rigiditet stenoze, dužina
stenoze, udaljenost gornjeg ruba stenoze do
glasnica te od donjeg ruba karine.
20. Liječenje
Segmentna resekcija dušnika i rekonstrukcija T-
T anastomozom je terapija izbora ako su
zadovoljeni kriteriji:
• precizno utvrđena visina i dužina stenotičkog
dijela
• mogućnost resekcije dušnika do u zdravo
• mogućnost stvaranja anastomoze bez tenzije
• očuvana vaskularizacija dušnika
21. Liječenje
• Liječenje ezofagotrahealne fistule je složeno.
Pronalaženje fistule i zatvaranje otvora u dušniku i
jednjaku je moguće:
• kod malih fistula
• bez veće stenoze dušnika
Kod većih fistula i stenoza, potrebna je resekcija
oštećenog dijela dušnika s primarnom trahealnom
anastomozom, uz zatvaranje defekta na jednjaku i
interpoziciju vratnih mišića između linija šavova.
22. Liječenje
Ako uvjeti ne dopuštaju resekcijski zahvat (trajna
potreba za mehaničkom ventilacijom, pridruženo stanje
koje ne dopušta zahvat), primjenjuju se privremene
mjere:
• dilatacija stenoze
• postavljanje stenta
• laserska rekanalizacija
• traheotomija
Traheostoma je jedini izbor u bolesnika s
predugim odsječkom stenoze dušnika, ili kod
teških neuroloških poremećaja praćenih
učestalim aspiracijama.