DNA replication in prokaryotes occurs through a semi-conservative process where each daughter cell inherits one old and one new DNA strand. Replication begins at the origin of replication and proceeds bidirectionally. It involves three main stages - initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation requires unwinding of the DNA duplex by helicase at the origin. Elongation is carried out by DNA polymerase III which synthesizes new DNA strands along the leading strand continuously and in short fragments along the lagging strand. Termination occurs when the replication forks from opposite directions meet.
The document discusses DNA denaturation and renaturation, including:
- Denaturation involves unwinding the DNA double helix into single strands through heating or chemical treatment, disrupting hydrogen bonds between base pairs. This increases UV absorption.
- Renaturation is the spontaneous rewinding of single strands back into the original double helix structure when denaturing conditions are removed, through base pairing of complementary strands.
- C0t curves plot the fraction of single strands renatured versus the product of DNA concentration and time, and can indicate the complexity and size of the original DNA sample based on renaturation rates. More complex DNA with more dissimilar sequences takes longer to renature
This document discusses transcription in eukaryotes. It begins with definitions of transcription and describes the basic process of RNA being synthesized from a DNA template. It then covers the mechanisms of transcription, including initiation involving RNA polymerase and transcription factors, elongation, and termination. The key similarities between prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription are that DNA acts as a template and RNA polymerase facilitates RNA synthesis. Key differences are that eukaryotic transcription occurs in the nucleus, is carried out by three classes of RNA polymerase, and RNAs are processed in the nucleus rather than the cytoplasm.
This document describes the process of DNA replication in eukaryotes. It occurs in S phase of the cell cycle and involves three main stages: initiation, formation of the initiation complex, and elongation. Initiation requires the assembly of pre-replication complexes containing ORC, Cdc6, Cdt1 and MCM proteins. In S phase, Cdc45 and GINS are recruited to form the initiation complex. Elongation proceeds bidirectionally from replication forks, with leading strand synthesis continuous and lagging strand discontinuous via Okazaki fragments. Replication terminates at telomeres.
This document summarizes DNA replication in prokaryotes. It begins by introducing DNA and its role in encoding genetic instructions. It then describes the general features of DNA replication, including that it is semi-conservative and bidirectional from the origin of replication. It discusses the various enzymes involved, including DNA polymerase, helicase, and ligase. It provides details on the three stages of replication in prokaryotes - initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation begins at the origin of replication with unwinding, elongation involves continuous leading and discontinuous lagging strand synthesis, and termination occurs at terminus sequences.
DNA is a double-helix molecule that carries genetic instructions. It is composed of two strands of polynucleotides made up of nucleotides, each containing a nitrogenous base, sugar, and phosphate. The strands are stabilized by hydrogen bonds between complementary bases and base-stacking interactions. DNA can be denatured into single strands by elevated temperature, extreme pH, low salt concentrations, or chemicals that disrupt hydrogen bonding between strands. Denaturation temperature depends on factors like base composition and length. Renaturation occurs when double-stranded DNA is cooled under conditions that allow the strands to re-form hydrogen bonds and complementary base pairing.
This document summarizes DNA replication in eukaryotic cells. It describes that replication occurs through replicons to overcome the slower polymerases. Replication is initiated at specific sites called autonomous replicating sequences (ARS) where the origin recognition complex (ORC) binds. Elongation uses DNA polymerases α, δ, and ε and occurs semi-discontinuously with Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand. Termination involves removing RNA primers with RNase H and sealing fragments with DNA ligase. Multiple enzymes are involved in each phase including MCM helicase, primase, DNA ligase, and DNA polymerases.
- Crick proposed the "wobble hypothesis" to explain how more than one codon can direct the synthesis of a single amino acid, given there are fewer tRNAs than codons.
- The hypothesis suggests the third nucleotide in a codon is not as important in binding to the tRNA anticodon. The first two nucleotides specify the amino acid.
- At the wobble position, the third nucleotide in the codon can bind in non-standard ways ("wobble") to the first nucleotide in the anticodon, allowing a single tRNA to bind to multiple codons and explain the degeneracy of the genetic code.
DNA
INTRODUCTION
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
NUCLEOSIDES & NUCLEOTIDES
DNA REPAIR
INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF DNA REPAIR
I)DIRECT REPAIR SYSTEM,
II)BASE EXCISION REPAIR,
III)NUCLEOTIDE EXCISION REPAIR,
IV)MISMATCH REPAIR,
V)RECOMBINATION REPAIR,
DEFECTS IN DNA REPAIR UNDERLIE HUMAN DISEASE
DNA RECOMBINATION
INTRODUCTION
MECHANISM OF DNA RECOMBINATION
TYPES OF RECOMBINATION
I) HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION
MODELS FOR HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION:-
I)HOLLIDAY MODEL,
II)MESSELSON AND RADDING MODEL,
III)DOUBLE STRAND BREAK MODEL,
GENE CONVERSION
II) NON-HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION,
i) SITE SPECIFIC RECOMBINATION,
ii)TRANSPOSITIONAL RECOMBINATION.,
The document discusses DNA denaturation and renaturation, including:
- Denaturation involves unwinding the DNA double helix into single strands through heating or chemical treatment, disrupting hydrogen bonds between base pairs. This increases UV absorption.
- Renaturation is the spontaneous rewinding of single strands back into the original double helix structure when denaturing conditions are removed, through base pairing of complementary strands.
- C0t curves plot the fraction of single strands renatured versus the product of DNA concentration and time, and can indicate the complexity and size of the original DNA sample based on renaturation rates. More complex DNA with more dissimilar sequences takes longer to renature
This document discusses transcription in eukaryotes. It begins with definitions of transcription and describes the basic process of RNA being synthesized from a DNA template. It then covers the mechanisms of transcription, including initiation involving RNA polymerase and transcription factors, elongation, and termination. The key similarities between prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription are that DNA acts as a template and RNA polymerase facilitates RNA synthesis. Key differences are that eukaryotic transcription occurs in the nucleus, is carried out by three classes of RNA polymerase, and RNAs are processed in the nucleus rather than the cytoplasm.
This document describes the process of DNA replication in eukaryotes. It occurs in S phase of the cell cycle and involves three main stages: initiation, formation of the initiation complex, and elongation. Initiation requires the assembly of pre-replication complexes containing ORC, Cdc6, Cdt1 and MCM proteins. In S phase, Cdc45 and GINS are recruited to form the initiation complex. Elongation proceeds bidirectionally from replication forks, with leading strand synthesis continuous and lagging strand discontinuous via Okazaki fragments. Replication terminates at telomeres.
This document summarizes DNA replication in prokaryotes. It begins by introducing DNA and its role in encoding genetic instructions. It then describes the general features of DNA replication, including that it is semi-conservative and bidirectional from the origin of replication. It discusses the various enzymes involved, including DNA polymerase, helicase, and ligase. It provides details on the three stages of replication in prokaryotes - initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation begins at the origin of replication with unwinding, elongation involves continuous leading and discontinuous lagging strand synthesis, and termination occurs at terminus sequences.
DNA is a double-helix molecule that carries genetic instructions. It is composed of two strands of polynucleotides made up of nucleotides, each containing a nitrogenous base, sugar, and phosphate. The strands are stabilized by hydrogen bonds between complementary bases and base-stacking interactions. DNA can be denatured into single strands by elevated temperature, extreme pH, low salt concentrations, or chemicals that disrupt hydrogen bonding between strands. Denaturation temperature depends on factors like base composition and length. Renaturation occurs when double-stranded DNA is cooled under conditions that allow the strands to re-form hydrogen bonds and complementary base pairing.
This document summarizes DNA replication in eukaryotic cells. It describes that replication occurs through replicons to overcome the slower polymerases. Replication is initiated at specific sites called autonomous replicating sequences (ARS) where the origin recognition complex (ORC) binds. Elongation uses DNA polymerases α, δ, and ε and occurs semi-discontinuously with Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand. Termination involves removing RNA primers with RNase H and sealing fragments with DNA ligase. Multiple enzymes are involved in each phase including MCM helicase, primase, DNA ligase, and DNA polymerases.
- Crick proposed the "wobble hypothesis" to explain how more than one codon can direct the synthesis of a single amino acid, given there are fewer tRNAs than codons.
- The hypothesis suggests the third nucleotide in a codon is not as important in binding to the tRNA anticodon. The first two nucleotides specify the amino acid.
- At the wobble position, the third nucleotide in the codon can bind in non-standard ways ("wobble") to the first nucleotide in the anticodon, allowing a single tRNA to bind to multiple codons and explain the degeneracy of the genetic code.
DNA
INTRODUCTION
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
NUCLEOSIDES & NUCLEOTIDES
DNA REPAIR
INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF DNA REPAIR
I)DIRECT REPAIR SYSTEM,
II)BASE EXCISION REPAIR,
III)NUCLEOTIDE EXCISION REPAIR,
IV)MISMATCH REPAIR,
V)RECOMBINATION REPAIR,
DEFECTS IN DNA REPAIR UNDERLIE HUMAN DISEASE
DNA RECOMBINATION
INTRODUCTION
MECHANISM OF DNA RECOMBINATION
TYPES OF RECOMBINATION
I) HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION
MODELS FOR HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION:-
I)HOLLIDAY MODEL,
II)MESSELSON AND RADDING MODEL,
III)DOUBLE STRAND BREAK MODEL,
GENE CONVERSION
II) NON-HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION,
i) SITE SPECIFIC RECOMBINATION,
ii)TRANSPOSITIONAL RECOMBINATION.,
DNA can be damaged through various means, including single base alterations, double base alterations, chain breaks, and cross-linking. Single base alterations include depurination, deamination, alkylation, base analogue incorporation, and mismatch bases. Double base alterations include pyrimidine dimers and purine dimers caused by UV radiation. Chain breaks include single and double stranded breaks caused by irradiation and free radicals. Cross-linking can occur between DNA and DNA or DNA and proteins due to UV radiation, ionizing radiation, and free radicals. Unrepaired damage can lead to mutations if incorrectly repaired during replication.
This document discusses site-specific recombination, including the structures and mechanisms involved. It describes two classes of recombinases - tyrosine recombinases and serine recombinases. Tyrosine recombinases involve cleavage of DNA through formation of a protein-DNA bond using a tyrosine residue. Serine recombinases utilize a phosphoserine bond between DNA and a conserved serine residue. The document provides examples of applications for site-specific recombination such as tracking cell lineage, altering gene expression, and targeted gene knockout.
DNA repair mechanisms in prokaryotes involve direct repair, excision repair, and mismatch repair. Direct repair converts damaged nucleotides directly back to their original structure using enzymes like photolyase. Excision repair removes damaged sections of DNA through base excision repair which removes single damaged bases using glycosylases and AP endonucleases, or nucleotide excision repair which removes short oligonucleotides. Mismatch repair recognizes and fixes errors made during DNA replication by distinguishing the parental DNA strands and excising the newly synthesized strand containing mistakes.
DNA = Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule that encodes the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms
DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA. It occurs in three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation begins at origins of replication and involves unwinding of the DNA double helix by helicases. During elongation, DNA polymerases add nucleotides to build new strands based on the existing DNA templates. Termination occurs when the replication forks meet at the end of the DNA molecule. DNA replication is semi-conservative, meaning each new DNA molecule contains one original and one new strand of DNA.
This document discusses transcription in prokaryotes. It begins by outlining the aims of understanding the transcription process, gene structure, promoter and terminator structures, and how transcription is terminated. The transcription process involves three steps - initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation occurs at the promoter region, which contains -10 and -35 boxes. Elongation involves RNA polymerase moving along the DNA and synthesizing RNA. Termination can occur via Rho-independent terminators that form hairpin loops, or Rho-dependent terminators involving the Rho protein. The gene structure contains a promoter region, RNA coding sequence, and terminator region.
CBCS 4TH SEM ,
CHARGING, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF tRNA,
AMINOACYL RNA SYNTHETASE(ASR) PROOFREADING AND EDITING
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzOVMWYLiCE
This document summarizes post-transcriptional modifications in eukaryotes. It discusses how eukaryotic mRNA undergoes processing, including capping, splicing to remove introns, and polyadenylation. Splicing requires snRNPs and the spliceosome to recognize splice sites. Alternative splicing allows one gene to code for multiple proteins. tRNA and rRNA also undergo processing as they mature, including modification of bases and removal of sequences. Final mature mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA are then ready for translation.
Topoisomerases are enzymes that alter the supercoiling of DNA by transiently cutting one or both strands of DNA. There are two main types of topoisomerases. Type 1 enzymes remove supercoils by breaking a single DNA strand, while Type 2 enzymes break both strands simultaneously. The regulation of DNA supercoiling by topoisomerases is essential for DNA transcription and replication to occur as it allows unwinding of the DNA helix. Bacteria contain DNA gyrase as their Type 2 topoisomerase, while eukaryotes contain multiple topoisomerase enzymes that can introduce or remove both positive and negative supercoils. Topoisomerases are important drug targets, with inhibitors of bacterial gyrase
Post-transcriptional modifications are important processes that convert primary transcript RNA into mature RNA. These modifications include 5' capping, 3' polyadenylation, and splicing of introns in eukaryotes. The modifications help make RNA molecules recognizable for translation and increase protein synthesis efficiency by removing non-coding regions. Different types of RNA undergo specific processing pathways involving nucleases, snoRNAs and other protein complexes.
Translation is the process by which proteins are synthesized from messenger RNA (mRNA) in eukaryotes, which are organisms with membrane-bound nuclei. Translation involves mRNA being decoded on ribosomes into a polypeptide chain. It occurs through three main steps - initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation involves the small ribosomal subunit binding to the 5' end of mRNA and scanning for the start codon. Elongation is the sequential addition of amino acids specified by the mRNA codons. Termination occurs when a stop codon is reached and release factors cause the ribosome to dissociate and release the completed protein.
DNA replication is the process by which DNA copies itself for transmission to daughter cells. In the late 1950s, three models were proposed for how DNA replicates: conservative, semi-conservative, and dispersive. Experiments showed that the semi-conservative model is correct, where each parental DNA strand acts as a template to replicate a new partner strand. DNA replication requires DNA and RNA polymerases, helicase, topoisomerases, primase, ligase and other proteins. It occurs through initiation, elongation and termination steps in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, though eukaryotes have multiple replication origins and use RNA primers on the lagging strand.
This document discusses replicons and the enzymes involved in DNA replication. It defines a replicon as a DNA molecule containing an origin of replication essential for initiating replication. Replicons can be linear or circular and contain initiator and termination sequences. The number of replicons per chromosome depends on its size. Various enzymes involved in replication include helicases to unwind DNA, primase to create RNA primers, DNA polymerases for DNA synthesis, ligase to join DNA fragments, and topoisomerases to relieve torsional stress. Replication proceeds bidirectionally from origins in prokaryotes and from multiple origins in eukaryotes in a tightly regulated process.
DNA replication in prokaryotes begins with the unwinding of DNA at the origin of replication by enzymes like DnaA and DnaB helicase. This produces two replication forks that move in opposite directions. The leading strand is replicated continuously while the lagging strand is replicated discontinuously in short segments called Okazaki fragments. DNA polymerase III is the main enzyme that synthesizes new DNA. Replication terminates at the terminus region when the DnaB helicase is stopped by protein Tus bound to Ter sequences.
The document summarizes the process of DNA replication in prokaryotes. It describes that replication initiates at the origin of replication (oriC) site and proceeds bidirectionally. There are three main steps - initiation, elongation, and termination. In initiation, proteins help unwind DNA at oriC. In elongation, primase synthesizes primers and DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to replicate both leading and lagging strands. In termination, RNA primers are removed and DNA ligase seals the replicated DNA, completing replication.
The tryptophan operon regulates the biosynthesis of tryptophan in E. coli through transcriptional attenuation and repression. It contains five genes encoding the enzymes needed to synthesize tryptophan. When tryptophan levels are high, the tryptophan repressor binds to the operator site, preventing transcription. Additionally, a regulatory region can form a terminator stem-loop structure to halt transcription if tryptophan tRNA levels are high during translation of the leader mRNA sequence. However, if tryptophan levels are low, the terminator structure does not form and transcription of the operon proceeds.
1. The document discusses the history and structure of nucleic acids DNA and RNA. It describes their discovery in the 1860s and the elucidation of DNA's double helix structure in 1953 by Watson, Crick, Wilkins and Franklin.
2. DNA is made of nucleotides containing deoxyribose, phosphate groups and nitrogenous bases that form base pairs between adenine-thymine and guanine-cytosine. RNA is similar but contains ribose and pairs uracil instead of thymine.
3. The document categorizes RNA into coding mRNA and non-coding types including rRNA, tRNA, snRNA, snoRNA, miRNA and lncRNA that have important structural and functional roles such
This document provides an introduction to genomics, proteomics, and comparative genomics. It discusses the central dogma of molecular biology involving DNA replication, transcription, and translation. It describes DNA and RNA structure and explains how genetic information flows from DNA to protein. The document also discusses genome sequencing, gene mapping, and how comparative analysis of genomes from different species can provide insights into evolutionary relationships and biological functions.
DNA can be damaged through various means, including single base alterations, double base alterations, chain breaks, and cross-linking. Single base alterations include depurination, deamination, alkylation, base analogue incorporation, and mismatch bases. Double base alterations include pyrimidine dimers and purine dimers caused by UV radiation. Chain breaks include single and double stranded breaks caused by irradiation and free radicals. Cross-linking can occur between DNA and DNA or DNA and proteins due to UV radiation, ionizing radiation, and free radicals. Unrepaired damage can lead to mutations if incorrectly repaired during replication.
This document discusses site-specific recombination, including the structures and mechanisms involved. It describes two classes of recombinases - tyrosine recombinases and serine recombinases. Tyrosine recombinases involve cleavage of DNA through formation of a protein-DNA bond using a tyrosine residue. Serine recombinases utilize a phosphoserine bond between DNA and a conserved serine residue. The document provides examples of applications for site-specific recombination such as tracking cell lineage, altering gene expression, and targeted gene knockout.
DNA repair mechanisms in prokaryotes involve direct repair, excision repair, and mismatch repair. Direct repair converts damaged nucleotides directly back to their original structure using enzymes like photolyase. Excision repair removes damaged sections of DNA through base excision repair which removes single damaged bases using glycosylases and AP endonucleases, or nucleotide excision repair which removes short oligonucleotides. Mismatch repair recognizes and fixes errors made during DNA replication by distinguishing the parental DNA strands and excising the newly synthesized strand containing mistakes.
DNA = Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule that encodes the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms
DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA. It occurs in three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation begins at origins of replication and involves unwinding of the DNA double helix by helicases. During elongation, DNA polymerases add nucleotides to build new strands based on the existing DNA templates. Termination occurs when the replication forks meet at the end of the DNA molecule. DNA replication is semi-conservative, meaning each new DNA molecule contains one original and one new strand of DNA.
This document discusses transcription in prokaryotes. It begins by outlining the aims of understanding the transcription process, gene structure, promoter and terminator structures, and how transcription is terminated. The transcription process involves three steps - initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation occurs at the promoter region, which contains -10 and -35 boxes. Elongation involves RNA polymerase moving along the DNA and synthesizing RNA. Termination can occur via Rho-independent terminators that form hairpin loops, or Rho-dependent terminators involving the Rho protein. The gene structure contains a promoter region, RNA coding sequence, and terminator region.
CBCS 4TH SEM ,
CHARGING, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF tRNA,
AMINOACYL RNA SYNTHETASE(ASR) PROOFREADING AND EDITING
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzOVMWYLiCE
This document summarizes post-transcriptional modifications in eukaryotes. It discusses how eukaryotic mRNA undergoes processing, including capping, splicing to remove introns, and polyadenylation. Splicing requires snRNPs and the spliceosome to recognize splice sites. Alternative splicing allows one gene to code for multiple proteins. tRNA and rRNA also undergo processing as they mature, including modification of bases and removal of sequences. Final mature mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA are then ready for translation.
Topoisomerases are enzymes that alter the supercoiling of DNA by transiently cutting one or both strands of DNA. There are two main types of topoisomerases. Type 1 enzymes remove supercoils by breaking a single DNA strand, while Type 2 enzymes break both strands simultaneously. The regulation of DNA supercoiling by topoisomerases is essential for DNA transcription and replication to occur as it allows unwinding of the DNA helix. Bacteria contain DNA gyrase as their Type 2 topoisomerase, while eukaryotes contain multiple topoisomerase enzymes that can introduce or remove both positive and negative supercoils. Topoisomerases are important drug targets, with inhibitors of bacterial gyrase
Post-transcriptional modifications are important processes that convert primary transcript RNA into mature RNA. These modifications include 5' capping, 3' polyadenylation, and splicing of introns in eukaryotes. The modifications help make RNA molecules recognizable for translation and increase protein synthesis efficiency by removing non-coding regions. Different types of RNA undergo specific processing pathways involving nucleases, snoRNAs and other protein complexes.
Translation is the process by which proteins are synthesized from messenger RNA (mRNA) in eukaryotes, which are organisms with membrane-bound nuclei. Translation involves mRNA being decoded on ribosomes into a polypeptide chain. It occurs through three main steps - initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation involves the small ribosomal subunit binding to the 5' end of mRNA and scanning for the start codon. Elongation is the sequential addition of amino acids specified by the mRNA codons. Termination occurs when a stop codon is reached and release factors cause the ribosome to dissociate and release the completed protein.
DNA replication is the process by which DNA copies itself for transmission to daughter cells. In the late 1950s, three models were proposed for how DNA replicates: conservative, semi-conservative, and dispersive. Experiments showed that the semi-conservative model is correct, where each parental DNA strand acts as a template to replicate a new partner strand. DNA replication requires DNA and RNA polymerases, helicase, topoisomerases, primase, ligase and other proteins. It occurs through initiation, elongation and termination steps in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, though eukaryotes have multiple replication origins and use RNA primers on the lagging strand.
This document discusses replicons and the enzymes involved in DNA replication. It defines a replicon as a DNA molecule containing an origin of replication essential for initiating replication. Replicons can be linear or circular and contain initiator and termination sequences. The number of replicons per chromosome depends on its size. Various enzymes involved in replication include helicases to unwind DNA, primase to create RNA primers, DNA polymerases for DNA synthesis, ligase to join DNA fragments, and topoisomerases to relieve torsional stress. Replication proceeds bidirectionally from origins in prokaryotes and from multiple origins in eukaryotes in a tightly regulated process.
DNA replication in prokaryotes begins with the unwinding of DNA at the origin of replication by enzymes like DnaA and DnaB helicase. This produces two replication forks that move in opposite directions. The leading strand is replicated continuously while the lagging strand is replicated discontinuously in short segments called Okazaki fragments. DNA polymerase III is the main enzyme that synthesizes new DNA. Replication terminates at the terminus region when the DnaB helicase is stopped by protein Tus bound to Ter sequences.
The document summarizes the process of DNA replication in prokaryotes. It describes that replication initiates at the origin of replication (oriC) site and proceeds bidirectionally. There are three main steps - initiation, elongation, and termination. In initiation, proteins help unwind DNA at oriC. In elongation, primase synthesizes primers and DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to replicate both leading and lagging strands. In termination, RNA primers are removed and DNA ligase seals the replicated DNA, completing replication.
The tryptophan operon regulates the biosynthesis of tryptophan in E. coli through transcriptional attenuation and repression. It contains five genes encoding the enzymes needed to synthesize tryptophan. When tryptophan levels are high, the tryptophan repressor binds to the operator site, preventing transcription. Additionally, a regulatory region can form a terminator stem-loop structure to halt transcription if tryptophan tRNA levels are high during translation of the leader mRNA sequence. However, if tryptophan levels are low, the terminator structure does not form and transcription of the operon proceeds.
1. The document discusses the history and structure of nucleic acids DNA and RNA. It describes their discovery in the 1860s and the elucidation of DNA's double helix structure in 1953 by Watson, Crick, Wilkins and Franklin.
2. DNA is made of nucleotides containing deoxyribose, phosphate groups and nitrogenous bases that form base pairs between adenine-thymine and guanine-cytosine. RNA is similar but contains ribose and pairs uracil instead of thymine.
3. The document categorizes RNA into coding mRNA and non-coding types including rRNA, tRNA, snRNA, snoRNA, miRNA and lncRNA that have important structural and functional roles such
This document provides an introduction to genomics, proteomics, and comparative genomics. It discusses the central dogma of molecular biology involving DNA replication, transcription, and translation. It describes DNA and RNA structure and explains how genetic information flows from DNA to protein. The document also discusses genome sequencing, gene mapping, and how comparative analysis of genomes from different species can provide insights into evolutionary relationships and biological functions.
DNA replication of genetic information.pptalifarag9115
The document summarizes DNA replication in three key points:
1) DNA replication involves unwinding the double helix, attracting complementary nucleotides to form new strands, and linking them via DNA polymerase. Meselson-Stahl experiments supported the semiconservative model of replication.
2) Replication requires several enzymes including DNA polymerases, helicase, primase, ligase and topoisomerases. Primers are needed to initiate leading and lagging strand synthesis.
3) Replication proceeds bidirectionally from origins of replication and maintains chromosome length through telomerase, which adds repeats to chromosome ends to replace lost bases. Eukaryotes have multiple replication origins per chromosome.
The document summarizes the process of DNA replication in three parts. It begins by introducing DNA replication and its importance. It then describes early experiments that proved replication occurs in a semiconservative manner, where each new DNA molecule contains one original and one newly synthesized strand. Finally, it outlines the key enzymes involved in replication, including DNA polymerase, helicase, primase and topoisomerases. The replication process is highly conserved between species and involves unwinding of the DNA double helix at the origin of replication by helicase and synthesis of new strands in both directions by DNA polymerase.
DNA replicates in a semi-conservative manner, as proven by Meselson and Stahl's experiment in 1958. Replication begins with initiation, where helicase unwinds the DNA double helix and primase lays down RNA primers. During elongation, DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the 3' end of the primers on the leading and lagging strands. Okazaki fragments are formed and ligated on the lagging strand. Replication terminates when DNA polymerase reaches the telomeres at the end of the DNA strands.
DNA replication in bacteria occurs through a semiconservative process whereby the parental double-stranded DNA separates and each strand serves as a template for synthesis of a new complementary strand. Meselson and Stahl's experiment provided evidence that replication occurs through this semiconservative model. DNA replication involves multiple enzymes that work together at the replication fork, including DNA polymerase III, helicase, primase, ligase, and topoisomerases. Replication initiates at the origin of replication and proceeds bidirectionally until termination is complete.
DNA REPLICATION IN PROKARYOTES INITIATION ELONGATION AND TERMINATIONaanitadanappanavar
Anita P.D presented a seminar on DNA replication in prokaryotes. The seminar covered the basic steps and mechanisms of DNA replication, including initiation, elongation, and termination. It discussed the key enzymes involved such as DNA polymerase, helicase, ligase, and primase. DNA replication in prokaryotes begins with unwinding at the origin of replication by helicase. The leading and lagging strands then elongate bidirectionally while being processed by various enzymes to accurately copy the parental DNA. DNA replication is essential for inheritance and survival of all organisms.
The document discusses DNA replication. It describes early experiments that showed DNA carries genetic information, such as the Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment. It also describes Chargaff's rules about DNA base composition and the Watson and Crick model of the DNA double helix structure. The process of DNA replication is then explained, including semi-conservative replication, the role of enzymes like DNA polymerase and helicase, and leading and lagging strand synthesis.
DNA replication is the most important process central dogma in the molecular genetics. So i hope this power point presentation useful to the students of B.Sc Agriculture and M.Sc Genetics and Plant Breeding.
- Griffith's experiment in 1928 showed that genetic material from heat-killed pathogenic bacteria could transform harmless bacteria into pathogenic ones, which he called the "transforming principle".
- Avery, Macleod, and McCarty's experiment in 1944 proved that DNA is the genetic material by showing that only DNA, and not other molecules, was able to transform bacteria.
- Hershey and Chase's experiment in 1952, using radioactive isotopes, demonstrated that DNA, not protein, enters a bacterial cell during viral infection, proving that DNA is the genetic material.
Prokaryotic DNA replication : These slides contains basics of the prokaryotic DNA replication for S.Y.B.Sc and T.Y.B.Sc students of Microbiology and biotechnology
It covers topics like Enzymes used in replication, Semiconservative replication, Meselson and Stahl experiment, Termination of replication, modes of replication: theta and rolling circle, basic rules of replication
This document is a biology project on DNA prepared by a student for their class. It includes a certificate authenticating the project, acknowledgements, and a detailed report on the structure and processes of DNA. The report discusses the history of DNA research from its discovery to the modern understanding of its double helix structure. It also explains DNA replication, where two identical DNA molecules are produced, and transcription, where DNA is copied into messenger RNA.
The document discusses the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that DNA is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein. It describes the process of DNA replication, including initiation, elongation, and termination. DNA replication is semiconservative and bidirectional, with the leading strand synthesized continuously and the lagging strand synthesized discontinuously in fragments. The mechanisms of DNA replication are largely similar between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
1. DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA before cell division. This ensures that each daughter cell has the full set of genetic instructions.
2. The DNA double helix unwinds and each strand acts as a template for new strand synthesis. RNA primers are added and DNA polymerase builds the new strands in the 5' to 3' direction.
3. The leading strand is synthesized continuously but the lagging strand is synthesized in fragments called Okazaki fragments that are later joined by DNA ligase. This semi-conservative mode of replication results in two identical DNA molecules after replication.
This document summarizes DNA replication in eukaryotic cells. It begins with an overview of DNA replication, including that it occurs during S phase and produces two identical DNA molecules from one original. It then describes the process of initiation, elongation, and termination of DNA replication. Initiation involves unwinding of DNA and formation of replication forks. Elongation involves continuous synthesis of the leading strand and discontinuous synthesis of the Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand. The document discusses several models of replication, including rolling circle replication, theta replication in prokaryotes, and replication of linear and telomeric DNA. It highlights key aspects like semiconservative replication being shown by Meselson-Stahl experiments. In
DNA replication is a semi-conservative process whereby each strand of the original DNA double helix acts as a template for the production of a new partner strand. This results in two DNA molecules that each contain one original and one newly synthesized strand, preserving half of the original DNA. The key stages of DNA replication are initiation, elongation, and termination, which involve enzymes unwinding and separating the DNA strands before new strands are synthesized according to base-pairing rules between nucleotides.
The document provides an overview of the structure and functions of the cell nucleus. It discusses how DNA is tightly packaged into chromosomes through winding around histone proteins to form nucleosomes and chromatin fibers. This compact packaging allows the 100 trillion meters of DNA in the human body to fit within cell nuclei. The nucleus contains DNA, which directs gene expression, DNA replication, and cell division. RNA carries DNA's genetic instructions out of the nucleus to direct protein synthesis. Key concepts covered include DNA and RNA structure, DNA replication, transcription, translation, and the central dogma of molecular biology.
This document provides an overview of DNA replication and the associated proteins involved. It defines DNA replication as the process by which DNA forms an exact replica of itself. Several key points are made: DNA replication is semi-conservative in nature, as proven by Meselson-Stahl experiments; it requires many proteins including DNA polymerases, helicases, primase, ligase and topoisomerases; in E. coli, replication initiates at specific origin sites and terminates at terminator sequences; eukaryotic replication similarly involves unwinding, priming, and synthesis but uses different DNA polymerases than prokaryotes.
In molecular biology, DNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule. DNA replication occurs in all living organisms acting as the basis for biological inheritance. The cell possesses the distinctive property of division, which makes replication of DNA essential.
CH- 6 MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE (1).pdfSunitaKumar24
DNA is made up of two polynucleotide chains that are coiled together in a double helix structure. Each chain contains deoxyribonucleotides joined by phosphodiester bonds. The nucleotides consist of a pentose sugar, phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases - adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine. The bases on each chain pair up through hydrogen bonds to form base pairs between adenine and thymine or cytosine and guanine. DNA replicates semiconservatively, with each new DNA molecule containing one original and one newly synthesized strand.
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Degradative plasmids & superbug for oil spillsAnu Sreejith
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2. REPLICATION
Prokaryotic DNA Replication
is the process by which a
prokaryote duplicates its DNA
into another copy that is
passed on to daughter cells
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3. SCHEMES OF REPLICATION
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Three types of DNA replication methods were postulated
– Conservative method
– Semi- Conservative method
– Dispersive method
4. CONSERVATIVE METHOD
• In conservative replication, the original strands would
remain together as would the two newly synthesized
strands.
• Hence, one of the daughter duplexes would contain only
parental DNA, while the other contain only newly
synthesized DNA.
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5. SEMI-CONSERVATIVE METHOD
• Semi-conservative mode was suggested by Watson and Crick in 1953.
• The daughter duplexes consist of one complete strand inherited from the
parental duplex and one complete strand that has been newly synthesized.
• It is said to be semiconservative because each daughter duplex contains one
strand from the parent structure.
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6. DISPERSIVE METHOD
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• The parental strands would be broken into fragments, and
new strands synthesized in short segments, which further
join together to form a complete strand.
• As a result, the daughter duplexes would contain strands that
were composites of old and new DNA.
8. EVIDENCE
• To gain evidence on DNA replication, Studies on bacteria was
conducted by Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl of the
California Institute of Technology in 1957.
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Franklin Stahl : Born October 8,
1929), American molecular
biologist and geneticist.
Matthew Meselson: Born May
24, 1930, American
geneticist & molecular biologist
9. PRINCIPLE
• They used heavy (15N) and light (14N) isotopes of nitrogen
to distinguish between parental and newly synthesized DNA
strands.
• The density of a DNA molecule is directly proportional to
the percentage of 15N or 14N atoms it contains.
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10. Procedure
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Bacteria was grown in medium containing 15N-
ammonium chloride (heavy isotope) as the sole
nitrogen source
These cultures were washed free of the old
medium and incubated in fresh medium
containing light, 14N and were analyzed at
increasing intervals over a period of several
generations
DNA was extracted from the
bacterial samples and subjected to
equilibrium density-gradient
centrifugation
12. EQUILIBRIUM DENSITY-GRADIENT
CENTRIFUGATION
• Extracted DNA was mixed with a concentrated solution of CsCl and
centrifuged to equilibrium at high speed in an ultracentrifuge.
• Cesium ions form a density gradient with the lowest density of Cs at the
top of the tube and greatest concentration at the bottom.
• During centrifugation, DNA fragments within the tube become localized
at a position having a density equal to their own density, which in turn
depends on the ratio of 15N/14N.
• The greater the 14N content, they localize higher in the tube.
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13. DR ANU P. A., ST. MARY'S COLLEGE, THRISSUR. 13
14. CONCLUSION
• The appearance of a hybrid band and the disappearance of the
heavy band after one generation eliminates conservative
replication.
• The subsequent appearance of two bands, one light and one
hybrid, eliminates the dispersive scheme.
• As long as replication continued semi-conservatively, the original
heavy parental strands remain intact and occupied a smaller
percentage of the total DNA. Hence, DNA replication was found
to be semi-conservative in nature.
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15. PROKARYOTIC DNA REPLICATION
• In 1963, John Cairns reported
the process of replication in E.
coli bacteria by autoradiography.
• The replication process can be
broadly divided into 3 sections
– Initiation
– Elongation
– Termination
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Cairns: (21 November 1922 – 12
November 2018); British physician and
molecular biologist
17. ORIGIN
• Replication begins at a specific site on the chromosome called origin.
• Origin of replication of E. coli is called oriC
• It is of 245 bp length, where a number of proteins bind for initiation.
• It is a conserved sequence in prokaryotes, rich in AT residues.
• Ori C consists of two types of sequences
– 13mer - three repeats of 13bp
– 9mer - five repeats of 9bp
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18. PROTEINS IN INITIATION
DnaA and DnaC : proteins helping in the recognition of the specific
sequence at oriC
Helicase: Enzyme, in presence of ATP unwinds DNA by breaking hydrogen
bonds between the nitrogenous base pairs to form replication forks .
Single-strand binding proteins: coat the single strands of DNA near the
replication fork to prevent them from winding back into double helix.
DNA gyrase: Type II topoisomerase enzyme, relieves the mechanical strain
that builds up during replication by removing positive supercoils
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19. HELICASE
• E. coli has 12 different helicases.
• One specific helicase ie, DnaB helicases serves as the major
unwinding enzyme during replication.
• DnaB helicase consists of six subunits arranged to form a ring-
shaped protein that encircles a single DNA strand.
• It is first loaded onto the DNA at the origin and translocates in a 5´
→ 3´ direction along the lagging-strand template, unwinding the
helix as it proceeds.
20. DNA GYRASE
It is a type II topoisomerase enzyme,
change the state of supercoiling in DNA
molecule.
Moves along the DNA ahead of replication
fork, removing positive supercoils.
Mechanism: Cleaves both strands of the
DNA, passing a segment of DNA through the
break to the other side, and then seals the
cuts. It require ATP hydrolysis
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21. INITIATION
• Dna A protein with ATP, binds to the 9mer sequences of oriC.
• This binding allows the opening of 13mer sequences of oriC by bending
the DNA.
• Helicase bind to 13mer repeats which are recognized by DnaC.
• Once helicase is settled on oriC (at 13mer) the DnaC protein will be
released.
• Helicase unwinds the DNA duplex into a Y – shaped structure called
replication fork
• Meantime, tension developed is relieved by DNA gyrase
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22. REPLICATION FORK
• The replication origin forms a Y shape,
and is called a replication fork.
• The two replication forks move
outwards in opposite directions that is,
bi directionally
• At the end they meet at a point across
the circle from the origin, where
replication is terminated.
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24. Enzymes
DNA pol III – Major enzyme required for DNA synthesis.
Primase - Synthesize a short segment of RNA called primer
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25. DNA POLYMERASES
• Pioneer work in the study of DNA Pol
was carried out by Arthur Kornberg at
Washington University in the 1950s
• It adds nucleotides to the growing DNA
chain that is complementary to the
template strand.
• For polymerization to proceed, the
enzyme need DNA and energy from all
four dNTPs.
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Arthur Kornberg (March 3, 1918 –
October 26, 2007) American
biochemist who won the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine 1959
26. TYPES OF DNA POL
• In 1969, studies on a mutant strain of E. coli revealed that apart from Kornberg
enzyme (DNA polymerase I), several distinct DNA polymerases are present.
• A typical bacteria contains 300 to 400 molecules of DNA polymerase I but only
about 10 copies of DNA polymerase III.
• In prokaryotes, three main types of polymerases are known:
– DNA pol I - accessory enzyme in DNA replication
– DNA pol II - along with DNA pol I, is required for DNA repair.
– DNA pol III – Major enzyme required for DNA synthesis.
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27. DNA POLYMERASE I
DNA polymerase I is considered as three different enzymes
in one as it has 3 different functions.
1. 5´→ 3´ exonuclease activity can degrade RNA stretches
created by primase in lagging strand.
2. 5´→ 3´ polymerase activity that fills the resulting gap in
lagging strand
3. 3´→5ˊ exonuclease activity
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28. DNA POL STRUCTURE
The holoenzyme consist of 10 different
subunits
1. Two core polymerases which
replicate the DNA,
2. Two or more clamps, which allow the
polymerase to remain associated
with the DNA,
3. A clamp loading complex, which
loads each sliding clamp onto the
DNA.
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29. DNA POL STRUCTURE - CLAMP
• Clamp – non - catalytic component of the holoenzyme for
keeping polymerase associated with the DNA template.
• Doughnut-shaped clamp encircles DNA and provides 2
contrasting properties for the enzyme:
1.long stretch association of enzyme with template
2.loose attachment with the template for easy
movement.
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30. DNA POL STRUCTURE – CLAMP
LOADER
• Clamp loader – multi subunit of enzyme containing two t subunits,
which hold the core polymerases
• Clamp loading complex in ATP-bound state assembles at primer-
template junction for holding the clamp.
• Once DNA moves through the opening in the clamp wall, ATP bound to
the clamp loader is hydrolyzed, causing the release of the clamp, which
closes around the DNA.
• The clamp is then ready to bind polymerase III.
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31. LIMITATIONS OF DNA POLYMERASE
• Two important restrictions:
– DNA Pol add Nucleotides only in the 5′ to 3′ direction.
– Enzyme requires a free 3′-OH group to add nucleotides,
so, if a free 3′-OH group is not available. Then how does
it add the first nucleotide?
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32. PRIMER
• A short segment of RNA can provide the required 3´ OH terminus
for DNA Pol and is called a primer.
• This 3´ OH carries out a nucleophilic attack on the 5´ phosphate of
the incoming Nucleoside TriPhosphate.
• Primer is five to ten nucleotides long and complementary to
template DNA.
• Primer is synthesized by RNA polymerase known as primase
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33. PRIMOSOME
• Primosome is a combination of
primase and helicase enzymes.
• Helicase moves along the lagging-
strand template processively (i.e.,
without being released from the
template strand during the
lifetime of the replication),
thereby opening the duplex.
• Primase periodically binds to the
helicase and synthesizes primers.
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34. REPLISOME
• Replisome refers to the entire complex of proteins that are active
at the replication fork.
• Complex includes DNA polymerase III holoenzyme, the helicase,
SSBs and primase.
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35. LEADING STRAND
• Strand complementary to 3′ to
5′ parental DNA strand
• synthesized continuously in a
single stretch
• Synthesized towards the
replication fork
• Synthesized in 5′to3′ direction.
LAGGING STRAND
• Strand complementary to 5′ to 3′
parental DNA
• Synthesized discontinuously, in
fragments - Okazaki fragments.
• Synthesized away from the
replication fork.
• Synthesized in 3′ to 5′ direction
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36. DR ANU P. A., ST. MARY'S COLLEGE, THRISSUR. 36
https://www.netclipart.com/isee/xmoTbT_dna-structure-clipart-dna-replication-enzymes-unzip-the/
37. OKAZAKI FRAGMENTS
• Short fragments on the lagging
strand is known as Okazaki
fragments.
• Discovered by Reiji Okazaki of
Nagoya University, Japan.
• Synthesis of Okazaki fragments
require individual primer.
DR ANU P. A., ST. MARY'S COLLEGE, THRISSUR. 37
October 8, 1930 – August 1, 1975,
Japanese molecular biologist
38. • After the synthesis of leading and lagging
strand, the polymerase is detached from the
site of replication.
• Thus bringing an end to elongation
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40. ENZYMES
RNase H – An endogenous enzyme that cleaves the RNA strand of an
RNA–DNA duplex in lagging strand.
DNA polymerase I – exonuclease activity, removing primers
DNA ligase – Joining of DNA fragments
DNA topoisomerase II – aids dissociation of 2 different circular DNA
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41. DNA LIGASE
• DNA ligase joins Okazaki fragments into a continuous strand.
• It facilitates the joining of DNA strands by catalyzing the
formation of a phosphodiester bond
• Catalyze 2 covalent phosphodiester bonds between 3‘OH end and
5' phosphate end of nucleotides.
• Two ATP molecules are consumed for each phosphodiester bond
formed.
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42. TERMINATION
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Multiple primers at lagging strand are cleaved by
RNase H
Primers removed by DNA polymerase I & fills
these gaps by the addition of nucleotides
DNA polymerase proofreads the sequence
for avoiding error in replication
Finally, the enzyme DNA ligase fills the gap
43. PROOF READING
• Incorrect nucleotides are often removed by DNA polymerase I
during termination of replication.
• The enzyme directs into the 3ˊ → 5ˊ exonuclease action that
removes mismatched nucleotide.
• This activity removes 99 out of every 100 mismatched bases.
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44. TERMINATOR RECOGNIZING
SEQUENCES
• At the last stage of termination, two replication fork meets at terminator
recognizing sequences, called as a Ter.
• Ter sequences with TUS protein create a complex which arrests the
replication fork.
• At this complex, the process of replication is completed and all other
proteins and enzymes leave this site.
• Only DNA topoisomerase II remains in action, it cuts both strands,
dissociates Ter-TUS complex and two different circular DNA is generated
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45. RATE OF REPLICATION
The replication of an entire bacterial chromosome in
approximately 40 minutes at 37°C requires that each
replication fork move about 1000 nucleotides per second.
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46. REFERENCES
Gerald Karp (2010). Cell and molecular biology:
concepts and experiments (6th ed.). John Wiley &
sons. ISBN-13 978-0-470-48337-4.
https://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Meselson_StahL_
experiment.html
https://geneticeducation.co.in/prokaryotic-dna-
replication/
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