RF Carrier oscillator
To generate the carrier signal.
Usually a crystal-controlled oscillator is used.
Buffer amplifier
Low gain, high input impedance linear amplifier.
To isolate the oscillator from the high power amplifiers.
Modulator : can use either emitter collector modulation
Intermediate and final power amplifiers (pull-push modulators)
Required with low-level transmitters to maintain symmetry in the AM envelope
Coupling network
Matches output impedance of the final amplifier to the transmission line/antenn
Applications are in low-power, low-capacity systems : wireless intercoms, remote control units, pagers and short-range walkie-talkie
Modulating signal is processed similarly as in low-level transmitter except for the addition of power amplifier
Power amplifier
To provide higher power modulating signal necessary to achieve 100% modulation (carrier power is maximum at the high-level modulation point).
Same circuit as low-level transmitter for carrier oscillator, buffer and driver but with addition of power amplifier
This presentation will explain about the need for modulation in communication system. We made this presentation as our group assignment in Analog and Digital Communication System course in MIIT.
RF Carrier oscillator
To generate the carrier signal.
Usually a crystal-controlled oscillator is used.
Buffer amplifier
Low gain, high input impedance linear amplifier.
To isolate the oscillator from the high power amplifiers.
Modulator : can use either emitter collector modulation
Intermediate and final power amplifiers (pull-push modulators)
Required with low-level transmitters to maintain symmetry in the AM envelope
Coupling network
Matches output impedance of the final amplifier to the transmission line/antenn
Applications are in low-power, low-capacity systems : wireless intercoms, remote control units, pagers and short-range walkie-talkie
Modulating signal is processed similarly as in low-level transmitter except for the addition of power amplifier
Power amplifier
To provide higher power modulating signal necessary to achieve 100% modulation (carrier power is maximum at the high-level modulation point).
Same circuit as low-level transmitter for carrier oscillator, buffer and driver but with addition of power amplifier
This presentation will explain about the need for modulation in communication system. We made this presentation as our group assignment in Analog and Digital Communication System course in MIIT.
Details: https://electronicsembeddedworld.blogspot.com/2018/06/performance-management-mcq.html
FM demodulation involves changing the frequency variations in a signal into amplitude variations at baseband, e.g. audio. There are several techniques and circuits that can be used each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
In any radio that is designed to receive frequency modulated signals there is some form of FM demodulator or detector. This circuit takes in frequency modulated RF signals and takes the modulation from the signal to output only the modulation that had been applied at the transmitter.
There are several types of FM detector / demodulator that can be used. Some types were more popular in the days when radios were made from discrete devices, but nowadays the PLL based detector and quadrature / coincidence detectors are the most widely used as they lend themselves to being incorporated into integrated circuits very easily...
Using Chebyshev filter design, there are two sub groups,
Type-I Chebyshev Filter
Type-II Chebyshev Filter
The major difference between butterworth and chebyshev filter is that the poles of butterworth filter lie on the circle while the poles of chebyshev filter lie on ellipse.
This Presentation Of Classes Of Amplifiers which is based on class a b ab and c amplifier by Arsalan Qureshi student of Dawood University Roll no: D-16-TE-09.
Details: https://electronicsembeddedworld.blogspot.com/2018/06/performance-management-mcq.html
FM demodulation involves changing the frequency variations in a signal into amplitude variations at baseband, e.g. audio. There are several techniques and circuits that can be used each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
In any radio that is designed to receive frequency modulated signals there is some form of FM demodulator or detector. This circuit takes in frequency modulated RF signals and takes the modulation from the signal to output only the modulation that had been applied at the transmitter.
There are several types of FM detector / demodulator that can be used. Some types were more popular in the days when radios were made from discrete devices, but nowadays the PLL based detector and quadrature / coincidence detectors are the most widely used as they lend themselves to being incorporated into integrated circuits very easily...
Using Chebyshev filter design, there are two sub groups,
Type-I Chebyshev Filter
Type-II Chebyshev Filter
The major difference between butterworth and chebyshev filter is that the poles of butterworth filter lie on the circle while the poles of chebyshev filter lie on ellipse.
This Presentation Of Classes Of Amplifiers which is based on class a b ab and c amplifier by Arsalan Qureshi student of Dawood University Roll no: D-16-TE-09.
AM – Frequency spectrum – vector representation – power relations – generation of AM – DSB, DSB/SC, SSB, VSB AM Transmitter & Receiver; FM and PM – frequency spectrum – power relations : NBFM & WBFM, Generation of FM and DM, Armstrong method & Reactance modulations : FM & PM frequency.
the modulation of a wave by varying its amplitude, used especially as a means of broadcasting an audio signal by combining it with a radio carrier wave.
Modulation
In the modulation process, some characteristic of a high-frequency carrier signal (bandpass), is changed according to the instantaneous amplitude of the information (baseband) signal.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
2. WHAT IS AMPLITUDE MODULATION?
It is a system of modulation in which the
amplitude of the carrier signal is made
proportional to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating message
signal.
3. WHAT IS DEMODULATION?
Demodulation is the process of recovering original message
signal from modulated wave. It also known as Detection.
DETECTION OF AMPLITUDE MODULATED SIGNAL
1. Envelop Detector or Average Detector
2. Square Law Detector
3. Synchronous Detector or Coherent Detection
4. Envelop Detector
An envelope detector is an electronic circuit that takes a high-frequency
signal as input and provides an output which is the envelop of the original
signal. The capacitor in the circuit stores up charge on the rising edge, and
releases it slowly through the resistor when the signal falls. The diode in
series rectifies the incoming signal, allowing current flow only when the
positive input terminal is at a higher potential than the negative input terminal.
5. Capacitor discharge between positive peaks produces a ripple signal of frequency ωc
in the output. By increasing the time constant RC, ripple can be reduced so that the
capacitor discharges very little between the positive peaks.
The envelop voltage is given by Ac [1+m cosωm t]
Time rate of decrease of this voltage is
-
𝒅𝒗
𝒅𝒕
= Ac mωm sinωm t
Rate of Capacitor discharge =
Ac [1+m cosωm t]
𝑹𝑪
In order to avoid carrier ripple the rate of capacitor discharge that should be greater
than the rate of drop of voltage
Ac [1+m cosωm t]
𝑹𝑪
≥ Ac m ωm sinωm t
1
𝑹𝑪
≥
mωm sinωm t
1+m cosωm t
1
𝑹𝑪
= mωm ≅ 0.3 or 0.4
6. SQUARE-LAW DEMODULATOR
Square law demodulator is used to demodulate low level AM wave.
Square Law
Device
Low Pass
Filter
AM wave Demodulated
Output
Ac 2 (1+m cosωm t) 2 cos 2 ωc t
Ac 2 (1+m 2 cos 2 ωm t+ 2m cosωm t) cos 2 ωc t
Ac 2 (cos 2 ωc t +m 2 cos 2 ωc t cos 2 ωm t+ 2m cos 2 ωc t cosωm t)
We get by above equation:-
2ωc , ωc – ωm , ωc + ωm , ωc – 2ωm and ωm
We will use a Low Pass Filter with frequency ‘fm’ to extract only ωm. As shown in
above figure.
7. Amplitude Modulation
1. The equation for AM wave is
s(t)= Ac [1+µ cosωm t] cosωc t
2. The value of modulation index is always between
zero and one.
3. Transmitted power is dependent upon
modulation index PT = Pc [ 1+
µ2
2
]
4. In an AM signal, only two sidebands are
produced, for any value of modulation index.
5. The amplitude of the sidebands is dependent on
the modulation index, and is always less than the
amplitude of carrier.
Frequency Modulation
1. The equation for FM wave is
s(t)= Ac cos[ωc t+β sinωm t]
2. The modulation index can have value either less
than one or more than one.
3. Since in FM, amplitude of carrier is constant, the
transmitted power is constant, independent of the
modulation index.
4. The modulation index determines the number of
significant pairs of sidebands in an FM signal.
5. The amplitude of the carrier and sidebands vary
with the modulation index and can be calculated
with Bessel functions.
Difference Between Amplitude Modulation
and Frequency Modulation
8. Amplitude Modulation
6. The sideband amplitude is never zero for any value of
modulation greater than zero.
7. The bandwidth of an AM signal is twice the highest
modulating frequency.
8. For AM, % of modulation is the ratio of amplitude of
modulating voltage to the amplitude of the carrier
multiplied by 100.
9. The AM system is more susceptible to noise and more
affected by noise than FM.
10. When two AM signals occupy the same frequency,
both signals will generally be heard regardless of
relative signal strength.
11. The efficiency of AM is less than that of FM due to use
of class-B amplifier.
12. The bandwidth required to transmit AM signal is much
less than that of FM typically 10KHz in AM
broadcasting.
Frequency Modulation
6. The carrier of sideband amplitudes are zero at some
modulation index.
7. The bandwidth of an FM signal is proportional to the
modulation index.
8. For FM, the % of modulation is the ratio of the actual
frequency deviation and the maximum permissible
frequency deviation multiplied by 100.
9. The main advantage of FM over AM is its noise
immunity, as limiter stage in FM receiver clips off noise
signals.
10. The capture effect in FM allows the strongest signal on
a frequency to dominate without interference from the
other signal
11. In FM, greater transmitter efficiency can be realized
using class-C amplifiers, as amplitude of FM signal is
constant.
12. The bandwidth of FM signal is much more than the
bandwidth of AM. The bandwidth of a typical FM
channel is 200KHz.