de and renaturation of dna.ppt
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Heating DNA causes the strands to separate (denaturation), breaking the hydrogen bonds between the bases. When cooled, the strands can reform hydrogen bonds and renature to become double stranded DNA again. DNA with higher GC content has more hydrogen bonds and a higher melting or denaturation temperature. The degree of DNA renaturation can be measured with a Cot curve, which plots the percentage of renatured DNA against the concentration of DNA multiplied by time.
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These are also known as “Jumping genes”.
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The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify a single copy of a DNA segment across several orders of magnitude. It was developed by Kary Mullis in 1983 and involves thermal cycling to separate DNA strands and allow a DNA polymerase to replicate the strands. This results in exponential amplification of the target DNA segment. PCR is now widely used in medical research and forensic sciences to amplify specific DNA regions.
Dna denaturation and renaturation
DNA denaturation refers to the melting of double-stranded DNA into single strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds between bases. It can be caused by elevated temperature, extremes of pH, or non-physiological salt concentrations. Denatured DNA is characterized by increased absorbance and decreased viscosity. DNA renaturation is the reformation of the double helix structure when denatured DNA is placed under conditions that allow the strands to reanneal through base pairing. These processes of denaturation and renaturation are important techniques used to understand genome size, genetic relatedness, and repetitive sequences.
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Brinjal.pptx
This document summarizes the symptoms and characteristics of various insect pests that affect plants. It describes pests such as the shoot and fruit borer that cause withering of terminal shoots and bore holes in shoots and fruits. It also mentions stem borers that cause drooping and withering of young plant tops and stunting of older plants. Descriptions of other pests include the hadda beetle, leaf roller, lace wing bug, bud worm, hairy caterpillar, brinjal mealy bug, tobacco caterpillar, whitefly, spiraling whitefly, serpentine leaf miner, and striped mealybug. For each, it outlines the visual symptoms of damage caused and sometimes includes details on the
pests on millet.pptx
The document summarizes various pests that affect millet crops, including shoot flies, stem borers, pink borers, white borers, white grubs, root aphids, caterpillars, ear head caterpillars, web worms, gall midges, ear head bugs, ear head beetles, weevils, leaf beetles, flea beetles, leaf rollers, slug caterpillars, chafer beetles, grasshoppers, aphids, and whiteflies. It describes the symptoms, appearance of larvae and adults, and in some cases the specific crops affected for each pest.
Linkage and Recombination.ppt
Genes located on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together due to their physical linkage on the chromosome. However, linkage can be broken during meiosis via recombination between homologous chromosomes through the process of crossover. Recombination results in new combinations of parental alleles and limits the types of gametes produced under conditions of complete linkage. Morgan's experiments with Drosophila provided evidence of this by demonstrating non-Mendelian inheritance ratios when genes were linked versus unlinked.
Genetic mapping.ppt
The document discusses various methods used for physical and transcript mapping including somatic cell hybrids, radiation hybrid maps, fluorescence in situ hybridization, flow sorting chromosomes, pulsed field electrophoresis, clone contig mapping, chromosome walking, inverse PCR, bubble PCR, and PCR-based screening. It also discusses genetic mapping techniques such as identifying genetic markers and recombinants, calculating genetic vs physical distances, multipoint mapping, and autozygosity mapping.
mendelian genetics.ppt
Mendel observed patterns of inheritance in pea plants through experimentation with traits such as flower color, seed shape, and pod color. His work provided evidence that heritable traits are specified by discrete units (later identified as genes) that are transmitted from parents to offspring in predictable patterns. Through experiments involving one trait (monohybrid crosses) and two traits (dihybrid crosses), Mendel deduced that genes assort and transmit independently during gamete formation and fertilization. Later work showed that traits are influenced not only by genes but also environmental factors and that variations exist in patterns of gene expression and dominance.
DNA damage.ppt
There are five main types of endogenous DNA damage including oxidation of bases from reactive oxygen species, alkylation of bases such as methylation, and hydrolysis of bases through deamination, depurination, and depyrimidination. DNA can also be damaged through alkylation and oxidation by exogenous sources like radiation exposure. Various mutagens including base analogs, intercalating agents, and UV light-induced thymine dimers further contribute to DNA damage that must be repaired.
GENETIC CODONS.ppt
The genetic code is a triplet code where each group of three nucleotides (codon) in mRNA specifies a single amino acid in the resulting polypeptide. The genetic code is almost universal across organisms, with 61 codons specifying 20 standard amino acids and 3 codons acting as termination signals. It exhibits several key properties including being comma-free, non-overlapping, degenerate, and containing start and stop signals. Wobble can occur in the third position of the codon-anticodon pairing to allow some redundancy.
viral dna.ppt
Viruses contain genetic material surrounded by a protein capsid. They rely on host cells for replication and typically infect specific cell types of one host species. A viral genome can be DNA or RNA, single or double stranded, and circular or linear in size. Viruses enter host cells, hijack their machinery to produce viral components, and assemble new viral particles which are then released to infect more cells through either a lytic or lysogenic pathway.
F-NUCLEOSOMES.ppt
Human DNA must be highly compressed to fit inside the nucleus. It achieves this by wrapping around proteins called nucleosomes, which act as spools. Each nucleosome contains an octamer of histone proteins around which 147 base pairs of DNA are wrapped. Multiple nucleosomes then coil further to form a 30nm fiber. This fiber is attached to a scaffold of RNA and proteins, forming loops that allow for further compaction of the DNA into chromosomes. The positioning of centromeres divides chromosomes into metacentric, submetacentric and acrocentric types in humans.
lampbrush chr.ppt
Polytene chromosomes are large chromosomes found in secretory cells like salivary glands that contain thousands of identical DNA strands aligned in parallel. This gives them a banded appearance with dark bands and clear interbands when viewed under a microscope. The bands represent regions of condensed and transcriptionally active DNA. B chromosomes are nonessential supernumerary chromosomes that are found in some populations but not others and can provide adaptive advantages in some species and environments.
polyploidy ..ppt
The document discusses euploidy, or changes in the number of sets of chromosomes, in animals and plants. It notes that while most animal species are diploid, some natural variations exist, including polyploidy in certain tissues and endopolyploidy. Polyploidy is more common and tolerated in plants, with 30-35% of ferns and flowering plants being polyploid. Examples are given of polyploid crops like wheat, cotton, and strawberries that are important agricultural products.
Micro RNA.ppt
This document discusses two topics: microRNAs and alternative splicing.
For microRNAs: Computational methods are used to predict microRNA genes by looking for evolutionarily conserved sequences that can form stem-loop hairpin structures. MicroRNAs regulate gene expression by binding to mRNA.
For alternative splicing: Splicing of pre-mRNA can result in different mRNA and protein isoforms through various combinations of exons. Bioinformatics methods aim to identify alternative splice variants by comparing cDNA and genomic sequences and analyzing microarray data. Splice graphs can model alternative splicing pathways.
stress proteins and cancer.ppt
This document discusses heat shock proteins and their relationship to cancer. Heat shock proteins help cells cope with stress and prevent protein damage. Studies show they play a role in cancer progression and drug resistance in breast cancer cells. Current research proposes investigating if plant extracts like Echinacea increase heat shock proteins in breast cancer cells. Understanding this relationship could help develop more effective cancer treatments. Further research on Echinacea's effects may provide insights into a possible cure for breast cancer.
DNA Structure.ppt
DNA consists of a double helix structure made up of nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a phosphate, pentose sugar, and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine, thymine, guanine, or cytosine. The bases bond specifically with each other - adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine. The sequence of these base pairs encodes genetic information.
self incompatability.ppt
Self-incompatibility is a plant's inability to set seed when self-pollinated due to morphological, genetic, physiological or biochemical causes controlled by the multi-allelic S locus. It is classified based on flower morphology, genes involved, site of expression, and pollen cytology. Two main types are distyly found in primula, controlled by two S alleles, and tristyly found in lythrum, controlled by S and M genes determining three style positions. Self-incompatibility prevents self-fertilization by arresting pollen tube growth when the pollen and pistil share the same S allele.
modes of reproduction and apomixis.ppt
This document discusses different modes of reproduction in living organisms, including sexual reproduction, asexual reproduction, and their sub-types. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes to produce offspring, while asexual reproduction does not. Some key sub-types are vegetative reproduction, apomixis (reproduction without fertilization), and gametophytic apomixis which allows embryo development without meiosis or fertilization. The document also notes the significance of different reproductive modes for plant breeding and genome evolution.
Introduction to Genetics.ppt
Genetics and Heredity defines key genetic terminology such as genes, alleles, chromosomes, loci, and inheritance. It discusses how Gregor Mendel conducted early experiments breeding pea plants over generations to develop the laws of inheritance and establish the foundations of genetics. Mendel demonstrated that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete factors, now known as genes, located on chromosomes. His work showed that some traits are dominant over others and that segregation and independent assortment of alleles allows for prediction of phenotypic ratios in offspring.
plant breeding.ppt
This document provides an overview of a course on basic plant breeding techniques. The course objectives are to understand how breeders meet breeding goals, learn classical and modern breeding methods, and see examples of genetics' importance in modern breeding. Key learning outcomes are to understand plant breeding developments, basics of genetics, and breeding concepts. The document then discusses the history and milestones of plant breeding, achievements in various crops, activities in plant breeding like creation of variation and selection, and breeding objectives like increasing yield and improving quality. It also covers concepts of centers of origin and diversity first proposed by Vavilov.
inheritance autosomal and sex linked.ppt
This document summarizes different patterns of inheritance including autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, X-linked, and Y-linked traits. It describes the key characteristics of each type of inheritance such as affected family members, chance of passing the trait to offspring, and examples of related genetic disorders.
sex determination.ppt
Sex determination in animals can occur through homogametic or heterogametic sex determination. In homogametic sex determination, the presence of a Y chromosome determines maleness in mammals and fish. In heterogametic sex determination, the presence of a second X chromosome determines femaleness in fruit flies, while the presence of two Z chromosomes determines maleness in birds, amphibians, and reptiles. For insects like grasshoppers and plants, the female is XX and the male is XO. In fruit flies, sex is determined by the ratio of X chromosomes to sets of autosomes, and the inactive X chromosome is inactivated through a process where Xist expression coats the inactive X chromosome in RNA
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aziz sancar nobel prize winner: from mardin to nobel
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de and renaturation of dna.ppt
- 2. Denaturation and Renaturation •Heating double stranded DNA can overcome the hydrogen bonds holding it together and cause the strands to separate resulting in denaturation of the DNA •When cooled relatively weak hydrogen bonds between bases can reform and the DNA renatures TACTCGACATGCTAGCAC ATGAGCTGTACGATCGTG Double stranded DNA TACTCGACATGCTAGCAC ATGAGCTGTACGATCGTG Double stranded DNA TACTCGACATGCTAGCAC ATGAGCTGTACGATCGTG Denatured DNA Single stranded DNA
- 3. Denaturation and Renaturation •DNA with a high guanine and cytosine content has relatively more hydrogen bonds between strands • higher GC content is reflected in higher melting or denaturation temperature Intermediate melting temperature Low melting temperature High melting temperature 67 % GC content - TGCTCGACGTGCTCG ACGAGCTGCACGAGC 33 % GC content - TACTAGACATTCTAG ATGATCTGTAAGATC TACTCGACAGGCTAG ATGAGCTGTCCGATC 50 % GC content -
- 4. Determination of GC Content OD260 0 1.0 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 Temperature (oC) Tm = 85 oC Tm = 75 oC Double stranded DNA Single stranded DNA Relatively low GC content Relatively high GC content Tm is the temperature at which half the DNA is melted
- 6. Cot curve •Cot curve is concerned with the measurement of the degree of re-annealing of DNA strands. • It is a curve drawn with X-axis having DNA concentration unit multiplied by time. •The initial concentration is considered represented as Co and when multiplied with time t, it becomes "Cot" and the graph is known as Cot curve. • The graph is drawn against % re-annealed versus Cot.
- 7. Reassociation Kinetics •The following equation describes the second order rate kinetics of DNA reassociation: Concentration of single stranded DNA after time t Initial concentration of single stranded DNA Second order rate constant (the important thing is that it is a constant) Co (measured in moles/liter) x t (seconds). Generally graphed on a log10 scale. Cot1/2 is the point at which half the initial concentration of single stranded DNA has annealed to form double-stranded DNA 1 1+kCot = C Co
- 8. Reassociation Kinetics Fraction remaining single- stranded (C/Co) 0 0.5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 101 102 103 104 Cot (mole x sec./l) 1.0 Higher Cot1/2 values indicate greater genome complexity Cot1/2
Editor's Notes
- For those really interested in the k constant: k = Pe-Q/kT Where: P = e = base o the natural log (ln) = 2.7183 Q = K = the Boltzmann constant = 1.308 jouls/degree K