Here are the types of conditionals for the sentences:
1. Zero conditional
2. First conditional
3. Third conditional
4. Zero conditional
5. First conditional
6. Zero conditional
7. Second conditional
8. Third conditional
9. Second conditional
10. Third conditional
PHIL 105-010January 26th, 2016Informal Fallacies.docxrandymartin91030
PHIL 105-010
January 26th, 2016
Informal Fallacies
Please Note
The examples of fallacies are given in italics.
The explanations are in plain text.
You are welcome to go online to look for more examples.
You will be tested on these fallacies.
There is a practice quiz at the end.
Informal Fallacies
Informal Fallacies are errors in informal or casual reasoning.
They are often committed in casual conversation.
But you can also find them in the media.
People are often unaware that they are committing an informal fallacy.
Committing an informal fallacy often reveals what our reality and value assumptions are.
#1 Fallacy of Composition
When the attribute of an individual or part of something is attributed to the whole or group.
The cells in my body are round; therefore my body is round.
False. The attribute of a cell (roundness) cannot be attributed to what those cells make up, i.e., the body.
The cup holder in my car is made of plastic; therefore, my car is made of plastic.
#2 Fallacy of Division
The opposite of the fallacy of composition.
The idea that an attribute of the whole can be applied to the individual parts of that whole.
Drexel is an old university; therefore, all the professors are old.
False. The attribute of the whole (Drexel is old) cannot be applied to what makes up Drexel (for example, the professors).
The earth is round; therefore, all earthlings are round.
#3 Circular Reasoning
When the conclusion you arrive at is actually already present in your premises (the ideas you believe support your conclusion).
It appears as if you are repeating yourself.
There’s only survival of the fittest because only the fittest survive.
What the Bible says is true because the Bible is true (or because the Bible says so).
#4 Loaded Question
When you ask someone a question to which there is no good answer and the other person cannot extricate themselves
Have you stopped beating your wife yet?
If you says yes, you are still beating your wife.
If you say no, it means you admit to once beating your wife.
There is no way to win.
Are you stoned or stupid?
These are usually rhetorical questions.
#5 Naturalistic Fallacy
That because something is the case in nature it ought to be the case, usually among humans.
This is taking a reality assumption and converting it into a value assumption.
Swans are monogamous; therefore, humans should be monogamous.
Bonobos are promiscuous; therefore, humans should be promiscuous.
Fish swim; therefore, humans should swim.
#6 cum hoc ergo propter hoc
Also known as “correlation = causation”
However, correlation does not equal causation
Children who wear big shoes also have good handwriting. Therefore, wearing big shoes causes good handwriting.
No, wearing big shoes does NOT cause good handwriting. These things are merely correlated.
This is how superstitions can start.
Because I wore those red socks, I hit the home run. Those are my lucky red socks.
#7 Fallacy of Accident.
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2. Definition
• Conditionals are a set of cause-effect
sentences.
• The cause-part starts with ‘If’ or ‘When’.
[It is also known as ‘if-clause’].
Eg: When water boils, it evaporates.
If I sleep late, I get a headache next morning.
4. The Zero Conditional
We use Zero conditional when we are talking
about:
✓Scientific fact
✓Common knowledge
✓Personal facts that are always true
✓Making requests/giving instructions.
5. Examples: Scientific Facts
A. When water boils at 100 degrees, it evaporates.
B. When cancer is not detected early, it becomes deadly.
C. Water freezes, when it is cooled at zero degree.
D. Fire goes out, if water is poured over it.
6. Structure:
Both sides have V1 form
A. When water boils at 100 degrees, it evaporates.
B. When cancer is not detected early, it becomes deadly.
C. Water freezes, when it is cooled at zero degree.
D. Fire goes out, if water is poured over it.
7. Examples:
Personal facts that always happen
1. Whenever I sleep late, I get a headache.
2. If my sister eats ice-cream, she catches cold.
3. My day goes bad, when I see a black cat crossing
the road.
8. Structure: V1 on both sides
1. Whenever I sleep late, I get a headache.
2. If my sister eats ice-cream, she catches cold.
3. My day goes bad, when I see a black cat crossing
the road.
9. Examples: Things available to common
knowledge
1. When you have money, everything seems rosy.
2. When you are poor, everything seems grey.
3. Dogs bark, when the caravan passes.
4. People talk, when you do something opposite to their
expectations.
10. Examples: Requests/ instructions
“If you are harassed on road, call the helpline
no.”, the poster said.
‘When you see violence, do not close your eyes,’
the poster said.
‘If there is fire, avoid lifts’, the notice stated.
11. The structure of Zero Conditional is
Cause-Part Effect-Part
If/When…V1 V1
13. First Conditional
We use first conditional to talk about
▪ Possible future events, and their results.
Eg.:
✓Professional advice
✓ Threats
✓ Promises
✓Persuading someone
15. Example: Advice
• If you eat healthy, you will live long.
• If you exercise regularly, you will never have
heart problems.
• If you work hard, you will succeed.
16. Examples: Threats
• If you do not have 90 percent attendance, you cannot sit in
the exams.
• ‘If US attacks again, we will hit back’, the Talibans said.
• You will not get well if you do not take medicine.
• The I-T department will send police if you do not pay taxes.
17. Examples: Promises
• I will keep you happy forever if you marry me.
• ‘If I become the President, I will make America great
again’, said Donald Trump.
18. Examples: Persuasion
‘If you buy from us, you will get 20 % discount plus 3 years’
warranty,’ said the seller.
‘You will be fairer in 5 weeks, if you use Fair and Lovely’.
19. Special use of 1st conditional in Legal
Language
Structure: Cause-part Effect-part
If + Shall Shall + effect
Example:
If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days
[…] the same shall be law.
CAUSE-PART
EFFECT-PART
21. Second Conditional
Use 1:
• We all have wishes; desires.
• When we talk about
✓Future / Present situation
✓Which has 0-1% chance of happening
we use second conditional.
If I won a million dollars, I would go to see the South Pole.
If I were you, I would accept this job.
22. Examples
‘If I were you, I would say ‘yes’ to him’, the friend said to the girl.
If I won a million dollars, I would travel the whole world.
I would watch Netflix all day, if today were declared a holiday.
But I am not you.
My chance of becoming You is 0%
But the chance of getting million dollars
is 0-1%, almost nil.
But chances of that are 0-1%
24. Examples
‘If I were you, I would say ‘yes’ to him’, the friend said to the girl.
If I were a millionaire, I would travel the whole world.
I would watch Netflix all day, if today were declared a holiday.
V2 verb V2 modal
of wish
V2 modal of wish V2 verb
26. Third Conditional
• We have regrets on our past.
• Negative memories, which we want to erase, but we
cannot.
• When we talk about our regrets, we use third
conditional.
• Also, when we talk of a hypothetical sequence of
events that did not happen, we use 3rd Conditional.
This helps in proving our theory about something.
28. Examples
If I had worked harder, I would have got a better job.
If India had sealed borders timely, COVID-19 would have
spread less.
29. Examples
If I had worked harder, I would have got a better job.
If India had sealed borders timely, COVID-19 could have stopped
spreading in India.
30. Third Conditional: Hypothesis
If China were innocent, it would have never silenced the early
reports of COVID-19.
If the police were active, the riots would never have happened.
But fact is, China silenced the early reports. (past event)
So, it must be guilty of developing the COVID-19 virus. Theory proved.
But fact is, riots happened. (past event). So, Police was inactive. Theory proved.
31. Structure of 3rd Conditional:
Hypothesis sentences
Cause-part Effect-Part
If…V2 verb would have V3
If police were active they would have
arrested the killer by now.
32. Solve:
Identify the Type of Conditionals
1. If I don't drink coffee in the afternoon, I feel sleepy.
2. I will tell her if I meet her.
3. I would have helped her if I had been there.
4. If you want to play a musical instrument, you have to
practice.
5. If I have enough time tomorrow, I will come and see you.
33. Solve:
Identify the Type of Conditionals
6. If you eat too much, you get fat.
7. What would you do if you lost your job?
8. If you had run a bit faster, you would have won.
9. If I were you, I would buy it as soon as possible.
10. If he had gone to university, he would have got a better job.