cholesterol synthesis
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This document summarizes key information about cholesterol: - Cholesterol is a constituent of cell membranes and is necessary for synthesizing steroid hormones, bile salts, and vitamin D. Abnormal cholesterol metabolism can lead to cardiovascular disease. - Cholesterol maintains stability and stiffness of cell membranes and is responsible for neurotransmitter and vitamin D synthesis. It is also involved in synthesizing hormones like aldosterone. - Cholesterol biosynthesis is a complex process where carbon atoms come from acetyl-CoA and occurs in five stages, forming HMG CoA, mevalonate, isoprenoid units, squalene, and finally cholesterol. - Cholesterol can be exported to tissues via LDL, converted to bile acids
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2. TRANSPORTATION
Cholesteryl ester, a dietary lipid, is an ester of cholesterol. The ester bond is formed between the carboxylate group of a fatty acid and the hydroxyl group of cholesterol. Cholesteryl esters have a lower solubility in water due to their increased hydrophobicity. Esters are formed by replacing at least one –OH (hydroxyl) group with an –O–alkyl (alkoxy) group. They are hydrolyzed by pancreatic enzymes, cholesterol esterase, to produce cholesterol and free fatty acids
cholesterol is also important to maintain structure of lipoprotein
Cholesterol travels through the blood on proteins called “lipoproteins.” Two types of lipoproteins carry cholesterol throughout the body:
1.LDL (low-density lipoprotein), sometimes called “bad” cholesterol, makes up most of your body's cholesterol.
2.HDL (high-density lipoprotein) called “good cholesterol” makes a less part of your body’s cholesterol
cholesterol biosynthesis.
Cholesterol biosynthesis is a complex pathway that begins with acetyl-CoA and produces cholesterol in four main stages:
1) Three acetyl units are condensed to form mevalonate.
2) Mevalonate is converted to two activated isoprene units.
3) Six isoprene units are polymerized to form squalene.
4) Squalene is cyclized to form the four rings of cholesterol.
The rate-limiting step is the conversion of HMG-CoA to mevalonate, and HMG-CoA reductase is the major point of regulation in the pathway. Dysregulation can lead to diseases like familial hypercholester
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a lipid found in animal tissues that plays several important biological roles. It is synthesized by liver and other tissues and circulates in the bloodstream bound to proteins. High levels are associated with cardiovascular disease while cholesterol is also needed for cell membrane structure, bile acid production, and steroid hormone synthesis. Cholesterol homeostasis involves absorption from diet in intestines and regulation of endogenous synthesis and excretion by the liver.
BIOSYNTHESIS OF CHOLESTEROL
Cholesterol is the major sterol in the animal tissues.
Cholesterol is present in tissues and in plasma either as free cholesterol or as a storage form, combined with a long-chain fatty acid as cholesteryl ester.
In plasma, both forms are transported in lipoproteins
removed from tissues by plasma high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and transported to the liver, where it is eliminated from the body either unchanged or after conversion to bile acids in the process known as reverse cholesterol transport
cholesterol_metabolism_1_.pdf
This document discusses cholesterol metabolism. It begins by defining different types of steroids like cholesterol, sterols, and steroid hormones. It then covers the structure, sources, functions, sites of biosynthesis, biosynthesis steps, regulation, and excretion of cholesterol. Key points include that the liver plays a central role in cholesterol homeostasis, cholesterol is synthesized from acetyl-CoA and is a precursor for other steroids, and HMG-CoA reductase is the rate-limiting step whose activity is regulated by feedback inhibition, phosphorylation/dephosphorylation, and competitive inhibitors like statins.
Cholestrol
cholestrol structure function and its types.clinical significance of cholestrol. hdl and ldl and their diet plan
Metabolism of cholesterol -
Cholesterol is one of the most studied molecules in biology. It plays essential roles in animal cell membranes and is a precursor for bile acids, steroid hormones, and vitamin D. Cholesterol is synthesized endogenously through a complex multi-step process and is also obtained through diet. High levels of cholesterol are linked to atherosclerosis and heart disease, while adequate levels are important for various biological functions. Tight regulation of cholesterol homeostasis is necessary for health.
All about Cholesterol ( for undergrads)
Cholesterol performs essential functions in the body and is synthesized in the liver and intestines. The liver plays a central role in regulating blood cholesterol levels. Half of the body's cholesterol comes from synthesis, while the remainder comes from diet. Cholesterol is used to make bile acids, steroid hormones like cortisol and aldosterone, vitamin D, and is incorporated into cell membranes. Bile acids help emulsify fats and are recycled through enterohepatic circulation. Statins work by inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase, an enzyme involved in cholesterol synthesis but also the production of other important compounds.
Cholesterol metabolism
Cholesterol is an important animal steroid that is synthesized in the liver and other tissues. It is a component of cell membranes and is also used to produce bile salts, hormones, and vitamin D. Cholesterol is absorbed from the diet through the small intestine and transported to the liver via chylomicrons. Cholesterol synthesis occurs through a multi-step process starting with acetyl-CoA and involving the rate-limiting enzyme HMG-CoA reductase. Cholesterol levels are regulated by feedback inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase as well as by hormones and drugs like statins that inhibit the enzyme. High cholesterol can lead to conditions like atherosclerosis and xanthomas.
Fatty acid metabolism.ppt
It mainly contains metabolism of saturated and unsaturated fats. It also contains utilisation of cholesterol after degradation in body i.e. synthesis of bile acids, Vit. D, steroid hormone etc. It also describe synthesis of ketone bodies and utilisation.
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Phospholipids
This document discusses lipids and phospholipids. It explains that lipids are insoluble in water and composed of fatty acids and glycerol. Phospholipids are produced when a phosphate group replaces a fatty acid in a triglyceride. Phospholipids form bilayers with hydrophilic heads facing out and hydrophobic tails packed inside. The document outlines the synthesis and degradation pathways of various phospholipids and their roles in cell membranes and signaling. Prostaglandins are also derived from arachidonic acid and mediate inflammatory responses.
Ketogenesis
During starvation and diabetes mellitus, acetyl-CoA from fatty acid oxidation takes an alternative route of forming ketone bodies in the liver mitochondria. This occurs via a multi-step process involving condensation, HMG-CoA production, lysis, reduction, and spontaneous decarboxylation. Ketone bodies (acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone) are utilized by extrahepatic tissues as fuel when glucose is unavailable. High glucagon and low insulin levels promote ketogenesis.
Metabolism of ketone bodies
This document discusses metabolism of ketone bodies during times of starvation and diabetes mellitus. It explains that when carbohydrates are unavailable, fatty acids are broken down to produce acetyl-CoA, which is then converted to ketone bodies - acetone, acetoacetate, and beta-hydroxybutyrate in the liver. These ketone bodies provide an alternative energy source for tissues like the brain. The document outlines the biochemical pathway and regulation of ketone body production.
Glycolysis
This document discusses glucose transporters, glycolysis, and the regulation of glycolysis. It provides the following key points:
- Glucose transporters facilitate the transport of glucose across plasma membranes into cells, as glucose cannot passively diffuse through the membrane.
- Glycolysis breaks down glucose to form pyruvate and produces 2 ATP molecules. Pyruvate can then be used for aerobic or anaerobic respiration to yield more energy.
- Three enzymes (hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase) regulating the irreversible steps control glycolysis. Insulin promotes glycolysis while glucagon promotes gluconeogenesis.
Glycogen metabolism and it’s regulation
Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles as a fuel reserve that can be easily mobilized to generate energy in the absence of oxygen. Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen synthesis from glucose, requiring enzymes like glycogen synthase. Glycogenolysis is the degradation of stored glycogen into glucose-6-phosphate and glucose by glycogen phosphorylase. The activities of glycogen synthase and phosphorylase are regulated by allosteric effectors and hormones like glucagon, epinephrine, and insulin to balance glycogen synthesis and breakdown. Genetic defects in glycogen metabolism can cause glycogen storage diseases.
Fatty acid oxidation
1. Fatty acid oxidation and synthesis involve complex multi-step pathways that occur in the cytoplasm and mitochondria.
2. Fatty acid oxidation via beta-oxidation breaks down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA units, requiring activation, transport into mitochondria, and four reaction cycles.
3. Fatty acid synthesis occurs primarily in the liver and involves production of acetyl-CoA and NADPH, conversion to malonyl-CoA, and fatty acid complex reactions to build palmitic acid from two-carbon units.
Disorders of carbohydrate metabolism
This document discusses lactose intolerance, including its causes, symptoms, and diagnosis. Lactose intolerance is caused by a deficiency of the enzyme lactase, which breaks down lactose in the small intestine. Undigested lactose passes to the colon, where bacteria ferment it causing symptoms like bloating, diarrhea and nausea. The H2 breath test is an accurate way to diagnose lactose intolerance by measuring increased hydrogen levels in breath after ingesting lactose. Management involves taking lactase supplements, using lactose-reduced products, or limiting dairy.
atherosclerosis
The document discusses atherosclerosis, which is a disease characterized by endothelial dysfunction, vascular inflammation, and the buildup of lipids and other materials within the inner layer of arterial walls. This buildup forms atherosclerotic plaques that protrude into the arterial lumen. Major risk factors for atherosclerosis include increasing age, male gender, family history, genetic abnormalities, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, cigarette smoking, and diabetes. The consequences of atherosclerosis include heart attacks, strokes, aortic aneurysms, and peripheral vascular disease. Prevention involves lifestyle changes while treatment focuses on controlling risk factors and surgical interventions if needed.
regulation of cholesterol synthesis
Regulation of cholesterol synthesis occurs primarily at the HMG-CoA reductase step through competitive inhibition by statins, feedback inhibition by downstream products, covalent modification by hormones like glucagon and insulin, and sterol-mediated regulation of gene transcription. Cholesterol levels are also controlled by transport in lipoproteins and uptake by tissues, and influenced by diet, lifestyle factors, and certain medical conditions that can raise or lower serum cholesterol concentration.
Aromatic amino acids
Tryptophan metabolism involves several steps. First, tryptophan is converted to 5-hydroxytryptophan by tryptophan hydroxylase, an early and rate-limiting step. 5-hydroxytryptophan is then decarboxylated by aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase to produce serotonin. Serotonin can then be further metabolized through several pathways.
Ammonia metabolism
Ammonia is produced through the metabolism of amino acids and nitrogenous compounds and exists as NH4+ ions at physiological pH. It is transported and stored as glutamine, which can be converted back to ammonia and glutamate. The liver plays a key role in ammonia disposal through the urea cycle, where ammonia and aspartate are converted to urea and fumarate in a 5-step process. Elevated ammonia is toxic and can cause neurological issues if not properly eliminated as urea through the kidneys. Genetic defects in the urea cycle can lead to hyperammonemia.
Vit a + vit k
Vitamin K plays an important role in blood clotting by activating clotting factors in the coagulation cascade. It exists in multiple forms, with vitamin K1 derived from plants and vitamin K2 produced by bacteria. Vitamin K is absorbed in the intestine and transported to the liver via chylomicrons, where it is stored and distributed to tissues bound to lipoproteins. A deficiency can impair clotting and cause bleeding, while vitamin K is also involved in bone mineralization, cell growth regulation, and preventing cardiovascular disease.
Vitamin A and D
Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin that exists in multiple forms including retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid. It plays important roles in vision, gene transcription, epithelial cell maintenance, reproduction, and immune function. Deficiency can cause night blindness, dry eyes, skin issues, and even blindness. Toxicity from excess intake is also possible. The body carefully regulates vitamin A levels through absorption in the intestine, storage in the liver, and transport to tissues as needed.
Vitamin b12
Vitamin B12, also known as cobalamin, is essential for normal cell metabolism and blood cell formation. It contains a cobalt ion at its core and different attachments to the cobalt determine the type of B12. The main sources are animal products. B12 requires intrinsic factor for absorption in the ileum. A deficiency can cause megaloblastic anemia and neurological problems due to impaired DNA synthesis and methylation reactions. Pernicious anemia is a type of B12 deficiency caused by a lack of intrinsic factor.
glycogen metabolism
This document summarizes the process of gluconeogenesis. It begins by defining gluconeogenesis as the production of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors when sufficient carbohydrates are not available from diet or glycogen reserves. The major sites are the liver and kidney. The key substrates that enter gluconeogenesis after conversion to pyruvate or later intermediates are listed as lactate, glucogenic amino acids, glycerol, and propionyl CoA. The document then describes the individual pathways for each substrate and explains how gluconeogenesis bypasses the irreversible steps of glycolysis through specific enzymes. It concludes by discussing the regulation and significance of maintaining glucose production through gluconeogenesis.
HMP Shunt
The document summarizes key aspects of the hexose monophosphate pathway (HMP pathway or pentose phosphate pathway). It describes the pathway's location in the cytosol and key tissues where it is active. The oxidative and non-oxidative phases of the pathway and their reactions are outlined. Regulation of the pathway by NADPH concentration is mentioned. The significance of the pathway is that it generates pentoses and NADPH, which is important for biosynthesis and antioxidant reactions. Deficiencies in the pathway can cause hemolytic anemia.
Folic acid
Folic acid is a B vitamin found in green leafy vegetables and whole grains. It is required for DNA synthesis and cell division. The biologically active form is tetrahydrofolate, which carries single carbon groups and is involved in reactions like purine synthesis. Deficiency can cause megaloblastic anemia during pregnancy or infancy due to impaired DNA synthesis. It is also associated with increased homocysteine levels and neural tube defects if deficiency occurs during pregnancy. While folic acid supplements can treat deficiency, they should not be given to cancer patients as it may increase abnormal cell growth and division.
Folate
Folic acid is essential for one carbon metabolism and the synthesis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. Rich sources include green leafy vegetables and yeast. Deficiency can cause megaloblastic anemia and fetal neural tube defects. It is caused by inadequate intake, increased need during pregnancy, malabsorption, medications, and B12 deficiency trapping folate. Symptoms include fatigue, sore tongue, and neurological issues. Diagnosis involves blood tests of folate, B12, and homocysteine levels. Treatment is oral folic acid supplementation.
Carbohydrate metabolism
This document provides information on carbohydrate metabolism and various pathways involved including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. It discusses:
- The key roles of glucose and glycogen in carbohydrate metabolism
- The three phases of glycolysis and production of ATP
- Conversion of pyruvate to lactate under anaerobic conditions
- Regulation of key enzymes in glycolysis
- Significance of glycolysis in various tissues and diseases
- The citric acid cycle and its importance in energy production
Metabolic acidosis
This document discusses metabolic acidosis, a condition caused by excessive acid production or inadequate removal of acid from the body. It causes a low blood pH (below 7.35). Symptoms are non-specific but can include altered mental status and respiratory changes. Diagnosis involves blood gas analysis showing low bicarbonate and pH. The anion gap is used to classify types of metabolic acidosis as high, normal, or low. Treatment focuses on resolving the underlying cause while supporting organ function through respiratory and renal compensation mechanisms.
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cholesterol synthesis
- 2. Introduction ž Cholesterol is constituent of all cell membrane. Necessary for synthesis of steroid hormones, bile salts and Vitamin D. Normal level <200mg/dl. Abnormality of cholesterol metabolism may lead to cardiovascular disease and heart attacks.
- 3. Functions of Cholesterol ž Cholesterol packs phospholipids from both the sides of cell membrane and therefore maintains stability and stiffness of cell. ž Cholesterol is responsible for proper synthesis of neurotransmitters. ž Cholesterol plays an important role in synthesis of Vitamin D3 and hormones including aldosterone, cortisol, estrogen, cortisone, progesterone. ž Cholesterol is a precursor to other vital molecules that are important for functioning of the body
- 4. Structure of cholesterol ž Its molecular formula is C27H46O. Cholesterol contains steroid rings with a hydroxyl group, two methyl groups and a hydrogen tail.
- 6. Synthesis Biosynthesis of cholestrol is considered a Complex method. The carbon atoms in cholestrol structure provided by single precursor ACETYL CoA. Synthesis of cholestol can be studied conveniently in 5 stages~ ž Formation of HMG CoA ž Synthesis of mevalonate ž Generation of isoprenoid units ž Synthesis of squalene ž Formation of cholesrol
- 9. Fate of Cholesterol ž Cholesterol can be exported and transported to other tissues via LDL ž Converted to bile acids and secreted into the intestines. ž Used up in formation of cell membrane. ž Used in formation of VIT.D and steroid hormones.
- 10. QUESTION Q)Ring system of cholesterol is known as- A) Cholanthrene ring B) Cyclopentano phenanthrene C) Napthoquinone D) Corrin ring
- 11. key enzyme in pathway of cholesterol biosynthesis is?
- 12. THANKS GENIUSES