This document discusses the chemistry and pharmacology of histamine and antihistamine drugs. It provides details on:
- The discovery and properties of histamine.
- Histamine synthesis from histidine, release from mast cells and other tissues, and metabolism by histamine-N-methyltransferase and diamine oxidase.
- The four types of histamine receptors (H1-H4), their distribution, and role in various physiological effects.
- The pharmacological effects of histamine release including allergic reactions and anaphylaxis.
- Classes of antihistamine drugs including H1 and H2 receptor antagonists, as well as mast cell stabilizers that inhibit histamine release
This document discusses histamine receptors and their antagonists. It begins with an introduction to histamine and its physiological effects. It then describes the three main histamine receptor subtypes (H1, H2, H3) and their locations in the body. The document focuses on H1 and H2 receptor antagonists, classifying and providing examples of different types of antihistamines. It discusses the mechanisms of action and structure-activity relationships of H1 receptor antagonists like mepyramine and H2 receptor antagonists like ranitidine and cimetidine. References are provided at the end.
This document discusses cholinergic agents, which are drugs that produce effects similar to acetylcholine by directly interacting with cholinergic receptors or increasing acetylcholine availability. It classifies cholinergic agonists and anticholinesterases. Cholinergic agonists include acetylcholine and analogs like methacholine and carbachol. Anticholinesterases reversibly or irreversibly inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, leading to acetylcholine accumulation. Common anticholinesterases discussed are physostigmine, neostigmine, pyridostigmine, and organophosphates. The document provides examples of clinical uses and synthesis for several cholinergic agents.
Medicinal chemistry of local anaestheticssuresh bairi
Local anaesthetics work by blocking sodium channels in nerves, preventing the generation of action potentials and nerve impulses that mediate pain sensation. They are classified into natural agents like cocaine, synthetic nitrogenous compounds derived from benzoic acid, p-aminobenzoic acid, and acetanilides. Important examples include lidocaine, bupivacaine, and procaine. The mechanism of action, structure-activity relationships, and factors affecting duration are discussed. Substitutions that increase lipid solubility and stabilize the molecule result in longer-lasting local anaesthetics with greater potency.
Neurohumoral transmission in CNS-
The term neurohumoral transmission designates the transfer of a nerve impulse from a presynaptic to a postsynaptic neuron by means of a humoral agent e.g. a biogenic amine, an amino acid or a peptide.
H1-antihistamines are used to treat allergy symptoms. Within this group are two generations called the first generation and second generation antihistamines. H2-antihistamines are used to treat gastrointestinal conditions.
The H2 receptor antagonists are reversible competitive blockers of histamine at the H2 receptors, particularly those in the gastric parietal cells, where they inhibit acid secretion. They are highly selective, do not affect the H1 receptors, and are not anticholinergic agents.
The key difference between H1 and H2 receptors is that the H1 receptor couples with Gq/11 stimulating phospholipase C while the H2 receptor interacts with Gs to activate adenylyl cyclase. Histamine is an organic nitrogenous compound that involves local immune responses.
Expt. 7 Bioassay of acetylcholine using rat ileum by four point bioassayVISHALJADHAV100
Objective
Principle
Requirements
Experimental specifications (conditions)
Preparation of ACh stock and standard solutions
Preparation of frog ringer solution (PSS)
Procedure
Kymograph recording of contractions
Observation table
Calculation
Result and interpretation
This document provides information about sympathomimetic agents. It discusses direct-acting, indirect-acting, and mixed-acting agents and how they work. Specific agents are described, including their properties, mechanisms of action, uses, and storage requirements. Sympathomimetic drugs act on adrenergic receptors to increase heart rate and blood pressure. Structure-activity relationships are also covered, explaining how chemical modifications impact receptor selectivity and duration of action.
This document discusses histamine receptors and their antagonists. It begins with an introduction to histamine and its physiological effects. It then describes the three main histamine receptor subtypes (H1, H2, H3) and their locations in the body. The document focuses on H1 and H2 receptor antagonists, classifying and providing examples of different types of antihistamines. It discusses the mechanisms of action and structure-activity relationships of H1 receptor antagonists like mepyramine and H2 receptor antagonists like ranitidine and cimetidine. References are provided at the end.
This document discusses cholinergic agents, which are drugs that produce effects similar to acetylcholine by directly interacting with cholinergic receptors or increasing acetylcholine availability. It classifies cholinergic agonists and anticholinesterases. Cholinergic agonists include acetylcholine and analogs like methacholine and carbachol. Anticholinesterases reversibly or irreversibly inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, leading to acetylcholine accumulation. Common anticholinesterases discussed are physostigmine, neostigmine, pyridostigmine, and organophosphates. The document provides examples of clinical uses and synthesis for several cholinergic agents.
Medicinal chemistry of local anaestheticssuresh bairi
Local anaesthetics work by blocking sodium channels in nerves, preventing the generation of action potentials and nerve impulses that mediate pain sensation. They are classified into natural agents like cocaine, synthetic nitrogenous compounds derived from benzoic acid, p-aminobenzoic acid, and acetanilides. Important examples include lidocaine, bupivacaine, and procaine. The mechanism of action, structure-activity relationships, and factors affecting duration are discussed. Substitutions that increase lipid solubility and stabilize the molecule result in longer-lasting local anaesthetics with greater potency.
Neurohumoral transmission in CNS-
The term neurohumoral transmission designates the transfer of a nerve impulse from a presynaptic to a postsynaptic neuron by means of a humoral agent e.g. a biogenic amine, an amino acid or a peptide.
H1-antihistamines are used to treat allergy symptoms. Within this group are two generations called the first generation and second generation antihistamines. H2-antihistamines are used to treat gastrointestinal conditions.
The H2 receptor antagonists are reversible competitive blockers of histamine at the H2 receptors, particularly those in the gastric parietal cells, where they inhibit acid secretion. They are highly selective, do not affect the H1 receptors, and are not anticholinergic agents.
The key difference between H1 and H2 receptors is that the H1 receptor couples with Gq/11 stimulating phospholipase C while the H2 receptor interacts with Gs to activate adenylyl cyclase. Histamine is an organic nitrogenous compound that involves local immune responses.
Expt. 7 Bioassay of acetylcholine using rat ileum by four point bioassayVISHALJADHAV100
Objective
Principle
Requirements
Experimental specifications (conditions)
Preparation of ACh stock and standard solutions
Preparation of frog ringer solution (PSS)
Procedure
Kymograph recording of contractions
Observation table
Calculation
Result and interpretation
This document provides information about sympathomimetic agents. It discusses direct-acting, indirect-acting, and mixed-acting agents and how they work. Specific agents are described, including their properties, mechanisms of action, uses, and storage requirements. Sympathomimetic drugs act on adrenergic receptors to increase heart rate and blood pressure. Structure-activity relationships are also covered, explaining how chemical modifications impact receptor selectivity and duration of action.
A condition in which the heart is unable to pump sufficient blood
to meet the metabolic demand of the body and also unable to receive it back because every time after a systole.
it's our aim to provide notes for pharmacy student without any charge.so that we make pharmacy education easier.
किसी भी शुल्क के बिना फार्मेसी छात्र के लिए नोट्स प्रदान करना हमारा लक्ष्य है।ताकि हम फार्मेसी शिक्षा को आसान बना दें।
Expt 8 Effect of drugs on ciliary motility of frog oesophagusMirza Anwar Baig
This document outlines a study to examine the effect of various drugs on gastrointestinal motility using frogs. The study will use physostigmine and atropine solutions applied to the buccal cavity of frogs to measure the time taken for food particles to move from the lower jaw to the esophagus, compared to a saline control. The goal is to determine if physostigmine enhances while atropine reduces gastrointestinal motility by stimulating or blocking acetylcholine, respectively. The procedure describes preparing the frog, taking baseline measurements, then applying the drug solutions and remeasuring motility times to observe any effects.
This document summarizes the structure-activity relationships of phenothiazine drugs. It notes that substitution at the 2-position and N-10 position is important for activity. The best substituents are electron-withdrawing groups at the 2-position, which increase antipsychotic effects. A three-carbon chain between the 10-position and amine nitrogen is critical for neuroleptic activity. The amine must be tertiary. Phenothiazines are thought to act as antagonists at dopamine receptors in the limbic system to treat thought disorders like schizophrenia.
5-Hydroxytryptamine & it’s Antagonist is a Topic in Pharmacology which will defiantly Help You in pharmacy field All information is related to pharmacology drug acting and it's effect on body. it is collage project given by our department i would like to share with you.
Expt. 8 Hypoglycemic effect of insulin in rabbitVISHALJADHAV100
This experiment aims to evaluate the hypoglycemic effect of insulin in rabbits at different time intervals. Healthy rabbits weighing 1800-3000 grams were fasted for 18 hours before being injected with 1 unit per ml of insulin. Blood glucose levels were measured initially and then every hour for 5 hours post-injection. Insulin caused blood glucose levels to decrease over time, demonstrating its ability to lower blood sugar as it stimulates glucose uptake into cells. The mean percentage decrease in glucose at each interval determined the hypoglycemic potency of insulin over the study period.
This document discusses structure-activity relationships in drug design and formulation. It introduces Hammett and Hansch plots, which relate reaction rates and biological activity to electronic and physicochemical properties. Modification of lead compounds is explored through changing functional groups, stereochemistry and lipophilicity. Morphine is used as a case study to illustrate how properties like log P, binding groups and stereochemistry impact opioid activity. The conclusion emphasizes the role of medicinal chemistry in understanding disease and developing safer, more effective pharmaceuticals.
This document discusses the synthesis, mechanisms, properties, and uses of several antifungal drugs: Metronidazole, Ketoconazole, Terconazole, and Miconazole. It provides details on the synthesis routes for each drug involving reactions of intermediates. The mechanisms of action involve inhibiting enzymes necessary for fungal cell wall synthesis or metabolism, which damages DNA and leads to cell death. The properties described include melting points, solubility, and physical forms. All four drugs are used as broad-spectrum antifungal agents to treat various fungal infections.
The document outlines the units and topics covered in a course on Medicinal Chemistry-I. Unit II discusses the synthesis of drugs acting on the autonomic nervous system including Tolazoline, Salbutamol, Phenylephrine, and Propranolol. Unit III covers drugs acting on the cholinergic nervous system such as Neostigmine, Dicyclomine Hydrochloride, Carbachol, and Ipratropium bromide. Units IV and V address drugs acting on the central nervous system, listing substances like Diazepam, Chlorpromazine, Ethosuximide, and others.
This seminar discusses the structure-activity relationship of H1-receptor antagonists. It describes the key structural requirements for antihistamine activity, including a diaryl substitution, connecting group X, alkyl chain, and tertiary amine terminal nitrogen group. The H1-antihistamines are classified based on their core structures into amino alkyl ethers, ethylenediamine derivatives, propylamine derivatives, phenothiazines, and piperazines. Understanding the SAR of substitutions and connections between groups can help optimize antihistamine potency and pharmacological effects.
3rd unit drugs used in congestive heart faliureNikithaGopalpet
Introduction.
Signs and Symptoms.
Types of CHF.
Classification .
Drugs used in CHF.
Mechanism of action.
Structure.
Adverse Drug Reactions and
Uses.
Reference
Seretonin (5HT) and Its Antagonists PharmacologyPranatiChavan
Serotonin is a chemical that has a wide variety of functions in the human body. It is sometimes called the happy chemical, because it contributes to wellbeing and happiness.
The scientific name for serotonin is 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT. It is mainly found in the brain, bowels, and blood platelets.
Serotonin is used to transmit messages between nerve cells, it is thought to be active in constricting smooth muscles, and it contributes to wellbeing and happiness, among other things. As the precursor for melatonin, it helps regulate the body’s sleep-wake cycles and the internal clock.
It is thought to play a role in appetite, the emotions, and motor, cognitive, and autonomic functions. However, it is not known exactly if serotonin affects these directly, or if it has an overall role in co-ordinating the nervous system.
Med chem lecture on Antihistaminicdrugssagar joshi
This document summarizes information about histamine and antihistamines. It discusses:
- Histamine's roles in the body as a mediator of inflammation and local immune responses, in regulating gut function, and as a neurotransmitter.
- How histamine is produced and stored in mast cells and basophils and is released during immune responses.
- The four types of histamine receptors (H1-H4), their locations and functions. H1 antihistamines are used to treat allergies.
- Details on first and second generation H1 antihistamines, including their structures, mechanisms of action, uses, and side effects. Second generation antihistamines avoid the
The document discusses various classes of sedative and hypnotic drugs including barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and newer non-benzodiazepine drugs. It describes the mechanism of action of these drugs as potentiating the effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA in the brain through binding to GABAA receptors or barbiturate sites. This results in increased chloride conductance, membrane hyperpolarization, and central nervous system depression. The document also provides structure-activity relationships and examples of specific drugs from each class like diazepam, zolpidem, and pentobarbital along with their medical uses, side effects, and synthesis when relevant.
Unit 2 General Pharmacology (As per PCI syllabus)Mirza Anwar Baig
This document provides an overview of drug pharmacology and mechanisms of action. It discusses:
1) Drugs act by interacting with receptors on cells and initiating signal transduction pathways. This allows small drug signals to be amplified within cells.
2) There are four main families of receptors: ligand-gated ion channels, G protein-coupled receptors, enzyme-linked receptors, and intracellular receptors.
3) Drug effects depend on their intrinsic activity as full agonists, partial agonists, inverse agonists or antagonists. Antagonists can be competitive, irreversible or allosteric.
This ppt covers the classification of anti psychotics with structures and IUPAC names, MOA, uses, metabolism and side effects. Dopaminergic pathways also given
Corticosteroids are steroid hormones produced in the adrenal cortex that lower inflammation and reduce immune system activity. Cortisone is a corticosteroid hormone released by the adrenal gland that binds to cytosolic receptors and regulates target gene expression. Hydrocortisone is a topical corticosteroid used to treat skin conditions by binding glucocorticoid receptors and inhibiting inflammatory processes. Prednisolone is an oral corticosteroid used to treat allergies, blood disorders, infections, and prevent organ rejection by decreasing inflammation. Betamethasone is a corticosteroid used for rheumatoid arthritis and skin diseases that binds intracellular receptors and modifies gene expression to inhibit inflammation. Dexamethasone
This document discusses autacoids, which are naturally occurring chemical substances produced within the body and transported to other parts where they exert effects. Autacoids include decarboxylated amino acids like histamine and serotonin, polypeptides like angiotensin and vasopressin, and eicosanoids like prostaglandins. Histamine is an important inflammatory mediator derived from histidine. It is released from mast cells and basophils and acts through H1, H2, and H3 receptors. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter synthesized from tryptophan that acts through multiple receptor subtypes and is involved in various physiological processes like sleep, mood, and gastrointestinal motility.
Unit 3 Drugs Affecting PNS (As per PCI syllabus)Mirza Anwar Baig
This document provides an overview of a lecture on drugs acting on the autonomic nervous system. It discusses the autonomic neurotransmission and classification of drugs into parasympathomimetics, parasympatholytics, sympathomimetics, and sympatholytics. Specific drugs discussed in detail include direct-acting cholinergic agonists like acetylcholine and indirect-acting cholinergic agonists like anticholinesterase agents. Anticholinergic drugs like atropine are also summarized in terms of their mechanisms and therapeutic uses.
This document discusses autacoids and histamine and antihistamines. It defines autacoids as locally acting substances produced by cells that have intense biological activity. Histamine is described as an autacoid mediator that is widely distributed and involved in allergic reactions. The document outlines the synthesis, release, mechanisms of action, effects and clinical uses of histamine. It also discusses antihistamines, describing first and second-generation H1 receptor antagonists, their mechanisms of action, uses in allergies and motion sickness, and potential adverse effects.
This document provides information about histamine including its formation, locations in the body, pharmacological effects, and roles. It discusses the four types of histamine receptors (H1-H4), their locations, functions, therapeutic uses, and adverse effects. Histamine is formed from the amino acid l-histidine and is involved in various physiological processes like gastric acid secretion, sleep-wake regulation, and vascular dilation. It also mediates immune responses and acts as a neurotransmitter.
A condition in which the heart is unable to pump sufficient blood
to meet the metabolic demand of the body and also unable to receive it back because every time after a systole.
it's our aim to provide notes for pharmacy student without any charge.so that we make pharmacy education easier.
किसी भी शुल्क के बिना फार्मेसी छात्र के लिए नोट्स प्रदान करना हमारा लक्ष्य है।ताकि हम फार्मेसी शिक्षा को आसान बना दें।
Expt 8 Effect of drugs on ciliary motility of frog oesophagusMirza Anwar Baig
This document outlines a study to examine the effect of various drugs on gastrointestinal motility using frogs. The study will use physostigmine and atropine solutions applied to the buccal cavity of frogs to measure the time taken for food particles to move from the lower jaw to the esophagus, compared to a saline control. The goal is to determine if physostigmine enhances while atropine reduces gastrointestinal motility by stimulating or blocking acetylcholine, respectively. The procedure describes preparing the frog, taking baseline measurements, then applying the drug solutions and remeasuring motility times to observe any effects.
This document summarizes the structure-activity relationships of phenothiazine drugs. It notes that substitution at the 2-position and N-10 position is important for activity. The best substituents are electron-withdrawing groups at the 2-position, which increase antipsychotic effects. A three-carbon chain between the 10-position and amine nitrogen is critical for neuroleptic activity. The amine must be tertiary. Phenothiazines are thought to act as antagonists at dopamine receptors in the limbic system to treat thought disorders like schizophrenia.
5-Hydroxytryptamine & it’s Antagonist is a Topic in Pharmacology which will defiantly Help You in pharmacy field All information is related to pharmacology drug acting and it's effect on body. it is collage project given by our department i would like to share with you.
Expt. 8 Hypoglycemic effect of insulin in rabbitVISHALJADHAV100
This experiment aims to evaluate the hypoglycemic effect of insulin in rabbits at different time intervals. Healthy rabbits weighing 1800-3000 grams were fasted for 18 hours before being injected with 1 unit per ml of insulin. Blood glucose levels were measured initially and then every hour for 5 hours post-injection. Insulin caused blood glucose levels to decrease over time, demonstrating its ability to lower blood sugar as it stimulates glucose uptake into cells. The mean percentage decrease in glucose at each interval determined the hypoglycemic potency of insulin over the study period.
This document discusses structure-activity relationships in drug design and formulation. It introduces Hammett and Hansch plots, which relate reaction rates and biological activity to electronic and physicochemical properties. Modification of lead compounds is explored through changing functional groups, stereochemistry and lipophilicity. Morphine is used as a case study to illustrate how properties like log P, binding groups and stereochemistry impact opioid activity. The conclusion emphasizes the role of medicinal chemistry in understanding disease and developing safer, more effective pharmaceuticals.
This document discusses the synthesis, mechanisms, properties, and uses of several antifungal drugs: Metronidazole, Ketoconazole, Terconazole, and Miconazole. It provides details on the synthesis routes for each drug involving reactions of intermediates. The mechanisms of action involve inhibiting enzymes necessary for fungal cell wall synthesis or metabolism, which damages DNA and leads to cell death. The properties described include melting points, solubility, and physical forms. All four drugs are used as broad-spectrum antifungal agents to treat various fungal infections.
The document outlines the units and topics covered in a course on Medicinal Chemistry-I. Unit II discusses the synthesis of drugs acting on the autonomic nervous system including Tolazoline, Salbutamol, Phenylephrine, and Propranolol. Unit III covers drugs acting on the cholinergic nervous system such as Neostigmine, Dicyclomine Hydrochloride, Carbachol, and Ipratropium bromide. Units IV and V address drugs acting on the central nervous system, listing substances like Diazepam, Chlorpromazine, Ethosuximide, and others.
This seminar discusses the structure-activity relationship of H1-receptor antagonists. It describes the key structural requirements for antihistamine activity, including a diaryl substitution, connecting group X, alkyl chain, and tertiary amine terminal nitrogen group. The H1-antihistamines are classified based on their core structures into amino alkyl ethers, ethylenediamine derivatives, propylamine derivatives, phenothiazines, and piperazines. Understanding the SAR of substitutions and connections between groups can help optimize antihistamine potency and pharmacological effects.
3rd unit drugs used in congestive heart faliureNikithaGopalpet
Introduction.
Signs and Symptoms.
Types of CHF.
Classification .
Drugs used in CHF.
Mechanism of action.
Structure.
Adverse Drug Reactions and
Uses.
Reference
Seretonin (5HT) and Its Antagonists PharmacologyPranatiChavan
Serotonin is a chemical that has a wide variety of functions in the human body. It is sometimes called the happy chemical, because it contributes to wellbeing and happiness.
The scientific name for serotonin is 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT. It is mainly found in the brain, bowels, and blood platelets.
Serotonin is used to transmit messages between nerve cells, it is thought to be active in constricting smooth muscles, and it contributes to wellbeing and happiness, among other things. As the precursor for melatonin, it helps regulate the body’s sleep-wake cycles and the internal clock.
It is thought to play a role in appetite, the emotions, and motor, cognitive, and autonomic functions. However, it is not known exactly if serotonin affects these directly, or if it has an overall role in co-ordinating the nervous system.
Med chem lecture on Antihistaminicdrugssagar joshi
This document summarizes information about histamine and antihistamines. It discusses:
- Histamine's roles in the body as a mediator of inflammation and local immune responses, in regulating gut function, and as a neurotransmitter.
- How histamine is produced and stored in mast cells and basophils and is released during immune responses.
- The four types of histamine receptors (H1-H4), their locations and functions. H1 antihistamines are used to treat allergies.
- Details on first and second generation H1 antihistamines, including their structures, mechanisms of action, uses, and side effects. Second generation antihistamines avoid the
The document discusses various classes of sedative and hypnotic drugs including barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and newer non-benzodiazepine drugs. It describes the mechanism of action of these drugs as potentiating the effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA in the brain through binding to GABAA receptors or barbiturate sites. This results in increased chloride conductance, membrane hyperpolarization, and central nervous system depression. The document also provides structure-activity relationships and examples of specific drugs from each class like diazepam, zolpidem, and pentobarbital along with their medical uses, side effects, and synthesis when relevant.
Unit 2 General Pharmacology (As per PCI syllabus)Mirza Anwar Baig
This document provides an overview of drug pharmacology and mechanisms of action. It discusses:
1) Drugs act by interacting with receptors on cells and initiating signal transduction pathways. This allows small drug signals to be amplified within cells.
2) There are four main families of receptors: ligand-gated ion channels, G protein-coupled receptors, enzyme-linked receptors, and intracellular receptors.
3) Drug effects depend on their intrinsic activity as full agonists, partial agonists, inverse agonists or antagonists. Antagonists can be competitive, irreversible or allosteric.
This ppt covers the classification of anti psychotics with structures and IUPAC names, MOA, uses, metabolism and side effects. Dopaminergic pathways also given
Corticosteroids are steroid hormones produced in the adrenal cortex that lower inflammation and reduce immune system activity. Cortisone is a corticosteroid hormone released by the adrenal gland that binds to cytosolic receptors and regulates target gene expression. Hydrocortisone is a topical corticosteroid used to treat skin conditions by binding glucocorticoid receptors and inhibiting inflammatory processes. Prednisolone is an oral corticosteroid used to treat allergies, blood disorders, infections, and prevent organ rejection by decreasing inflammation. Betamethasone is a corticosteroid used for rheumatoid arthritis and skin diseases that binds intracellular receptors and modifies gene expression to inhibit inflammation. Dexamethasone
This document discusses autacoids, which are naturally occurring chemical substances produced within the body and transported to other parts where they exert effects. Autacoids include decarboxylated amino acids like histamine and serotonin, polypeptides like angiotensin and vasopressin, and eicosanoids like prostaglandins. Histamine is an important inflammatory mediator derived from histidine. It is released from mast cells and basophils and acts through H1, H2, and H3 receptors. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter synthesized from tryptophan that acts through multiple receptor subtypes and is involved in various physiological processes like sleep, mood, and gastrointestinal motility.
Unit 3 Drugs Affecting PNS (As per PCI syllabus)Mirza Anwar Baig
This document provides an overview of a lecture on drugs acting on the autonomic nervous system. It discusses the autonomic neurotransmission and classification of drugs into parasympathomimetics, parasympatholytics, sympathomimetics, and sympatholytics. Specific drugs discussed in detail include direct-acting cholinergic agonists like acetylcholine and indirect-acting cholinergic agonists like anticholinesterase agents. Anticholinergic drugs like atropine are also summarized in terms of their mechanisms and therapeutic uses.
This document discusses autacoids and histamine and antihistamines. It defines autacoids as locally acting substances produced by cells that have intense biological activity. Histamine is described as an autacoid mediator that is widely distributed and involved in allergic reactions. The document outlines the synthesis, release, mechanisms of action, effects and clinical uses of histamine. It also discusses antihistamines, describing first and second-generation H1 receptor antagonists, their mechanisms of action, uses in allergies and motion sickness, and potential adverse effects.
This document provides information about histamine including its formation, locations in the body, pharmacological effects, and roles. It discusses the four types of histamine receptors (H1-H4), their locations, functions, therapeutic uses, and adverse effects. Histamine is formed from the amino acid l-histidine and is involved in various physiological processes like gastric acid secretion, sleep-wake regulation, and vascular dilation. It also mediates immune responses and acts as a neurotransmitter.
Autacoids, also known as local hormones, are naturally occurring substances that have different structures and pharmacological actions. They include decarboxylated amino acids, polypeptides, and eicosanoids. Histamine is one of the most important autacoids and is stored in mast cells. It is released through immunologic or non-immunologic mechanisms to modulate inflammatory and immune responses. Antihistamines work by blocking the H1 receptor and are used to treat various allergic conditions by reducing the effects of histamine. First generation antihistamines are less selective and have more side effects while second generation antihistamines have fewer side effects.
This document discusses histamine and antihistamines. It provides details on histamine including its synthesis, storage, receptors, and role in allergic reactions and inflammation. It then describes first and second generation antihistamines that act as H1 receptor antagonists to relieve symptoms of allergic rhinitis, urticaria, and other conditions by blocking the effects of histamine. The patient described has seasonal allergic rhinitis, so a second generation antihistamine with fewer side effects would be most suitable. First generation antihistamines that cause drowsiness should be avoided.
This document provides an overview of histamines and antihistamines. It discusses how histamine is synthesized and its effects mediated through four types of histamine receptors. It then focuses on H1 receptor antagonists (antihistamines), describing their classification, pharmacological actions, and uses in treating allergic disorders and motion sickness. Newer non-sedating antihistamines are also covered. The document concludes by discussing applications of antihistamines in dentistry, such as in treating allergic reactions to local anesthetics.
This document discusses histamine and histamine antagonists (antihistamines). It begins by outlining the objectives which are to describe the histamine receptor subtypes, distinguish between first and second generation antihistamines, and discuss the actions and side effects of histamine and antihistamines. It then provides details on the distribution, synthesis, and physiological and pathophysiological actions of histamine. The mechanisms of action, indications, and side effect profiles of first and second generation antihistamines are compared. In summary, the document is a review of histamine pharmacology and the clinical applications of antihistamines.
Histamine is a biogenic amine involved in local immune responses and physiological functions. It is synthesized from histidine by histidine decarboxylase and stored in mast cells and basophils. Upon release, histamine binds to four G-protein coupled receptors - H1, H2, H3, and H4. H1 activation causes bronchoconstriction, increased vascular permeability, and gastric acid secretion. H2 activation increases gastric acid secretion. H3 activation inhibits histamine synthesis and release. Recent advances include the cloning of human histamine receptors and development of second-generation antihistamines with improved safety profiles.
Histamine and serotonin function as neurotransmitters and local hormones. Histamine is an important mediator of allergic and inflammatory reactions that is stored in mast cells and basophils and released through immunologic or chemical means. It exerts effects through four receptor subtypes. First and second generation antihistamines competitively block histamine H1 receptors, with second generation drugs having fewer side effects like sedation. H2 receptor antagonists suppress gastric acid secretion. Third and fourth generation histamine receptor ligands may treat psychiatric and inflammatory conditions.
Histamine and antihistamines are discussed. Histamine is released from mast cells during allergic reactions and causes effects through H1, H2, and H3 receptors. Antihistamines block the H1 receptor, preventing histamine's effects. First generation antihistamines are sedating due to crossing the blood brain barrier, while second generation antihistamines are non-sedating as they do not cross as readily. Specific antihistamines discussed include diphenhydramine, loratadine, cetirizine, and fexofenadine. H2 antagonists like cimetidine and famotidine competitively block the H2 receptor to inhibit gastric acid secretion
The document provides an overview of histamine and antihistamines. It discusses how histamine is synthesized and stored in mast cells and basophils. Histamine is released through immunologic and non-immunologic mechanisms to produce local inflammatory responses. It acts through four G-protein coupled receptors (H1-H4) and has effects on blood vessels, heart, lungs, gastric acid secretion, and the central nervous system. Antihistamines like diphenhydramine and cetirizine are H1 receptor antagonists used to treat allergic conditions by blocking the effects of histamine. First generation antihistamines have anticholinergic effects while second generation drugs have fewer side effects.
Histamine is a compound involved in local immune responses and regulating various physiological functions. It is produced by basophils and mast cells and released during allergic reactions. Histamine binds to H1, H2, and H3 receptors throughout the body, causing effects like vasodilation, increased capillary permeability during allergic responses, regulation of the sleep-wake cycle as a neurotransmitter, stimulation of gastric acid release, and involvement in conditions like schizophrenia and multiple sclerosis. Histamine plays an important role in many physiological processes through its ability to interact with different receptor types in various tissues and organs.
This document provides information about histamine and anti-histamines. It discusses how histamine is synthesized from the amino acid histidine and stored in mast cells and basophils. It is released in response to stimuli like allergens and causes effects through four main histamine receptors: H1, H2, H3, and H4. Anti-histamines work by blocking the H1 and H2 receptors. First generation anti-histamines are more sedating while second generation ones have less side effects. They are used to treat allergies, hives, and gastric disorders.
Introduction to Autocids And Histamine and Antihistamine.pdfrishi2789
This document discusses autacoids and antihistamines. It defines autacoids as locally acting substances produced by cells that have intense biological activity, such as histamine. Classical autacoids include amines, lipids, and peptides. Antihistamines work by competitively blocking the actions of histamine at H1 receptors. First-generation antihistamines can cause sedation as a side effect, while second-generation antihistamines are less sedating. Antihistamines are used to treat allergic disorders, motion sickness, nausea, vertigo, and conditions involving excess histamine release.
Histamine is released during allergic reactions and binds to four types of histamine receptors (H1-H4) throughout the body. H1 receptors are responsible for many allergic symptoms and are targeted by antihistamines. First generation antihistamines like diphenhydramine are sedating but newer second generation ones like loratadine are less sedating. Antihistamines treat allergies, nausea, and insomnia. H2 receptor blockers like ranitidine reduce stomach acid and treat ulcers. Mast cell stabilizers prevent histamine release for asthma prevention.
Histamine is a local hormone that is involved in physiological and pathological processes. It is stored in mast cells and released during allergic reactions. Histamine acts through four histamine receptors (H1-H4) and causes effects such as vasodilation, increased capillary permeability, bronchconstriction, and gastric acid secretion. Antihistamines are drugs that competitively block the H1 receptor and are used to treat allergic conditions. First generation antihistamines are sedating while second generation antihistamines are non-sedating but have fewer adverse effects. Histamine and antihistamines play important roles in allergic inflammation and disease.
Similar to Chemistry of histamine and antihistamine drugs (H-1 and H-2 antagonist) (20)
This document discusses cancer and chemotherapy. It defines cancer as uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells that can lead to death if left untreated. Malignant tumors can invade tissues and spread, while benign tumors do not. Chemotherapy refers to drugs used to kill cells, including anticancer agents. The effects of chemotherapy depend on the cancer's stage and location. Cancer development is influenced by genetic and environmental factors. The document then discusses the cell cycle, tumor suppressor genes, apoptosis pathways, limitations of chemotherapy, adverse effects, and classifications of chemotherapy drugs including alkylating agents.
This document discusses cephalosporins, a class of beta-lactam antibiotics. It describes the generations of cephalosporins and their spectra of activity. It also discusses mechanisms of resistance to cephalosporins, including beta-lactamase enzymes. Specifically, it covers extended spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) and metallo beta-lactamases, which can hydrolyze important drug classes. The use of beta-lactamase inhibitors like clavulanic acid, sulbactam, and tazobactam is described to overcome beta-lactamase mediated resistance.
This document discusses several classes of antibiotics including tetracyclines, macrolides, chloramphenicol, and lincosamides. It describes the chemical structures, mechanisms of action, modes of resistance, and structure-activity relationships for these drug classes. Tetracyclines are broad-spectrum antibiotics derived from Streptomyces fermentation that work by inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis. Macrolides also inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by binding the 50S ribosomal subunit. Resistance to macrolides occurs through methylation of ribosomal RNA. Chloramphenicol obtained from Streptomyces inhibits bacterial protein synthesis. Clindamycin is a lincosamide derived from lincomycin with a chlorine substitution that
The document summarizes key information about aminoglycoside antibiotics. It discusses their discovery, examples currently used, and properties like poor absorption and administration by injection. Mechanisms of action involve binding to bacterial ribosomes to inhibit protein synthesis. Resistance can develop through enzymatic modification of the antibiotics. The structure and functional groups of the different rings that make up aminoglycosides influence their activity, spectrum, and susceptibility to resistance mechanisms.
The document discusses pro-drugs, which are inactive precursors designed to improve the delivery of active drug molecules. It describes how pro-drugs can be used to mask tastes/odors, modify formulations, enhance solubility, reduce side effects like GI irritation, and target drug delivery. Pro-drugs are metabolized in the body to release the active drug. Types include carrier-linked prodrugs, bioprecursor prodrugs, and mutual prodrugs, which release two active drugs. Applications include taste masking, solubility enhancement, and site-specific delivery to improve drug therapies.
1. Tuberculosis remains a major global health problem, causing millions of deaths each year. New antitubercular agents are needed to combat drug resistance.
2. The document discusses the development of various classes of antitubercular agents, including synthetic drugs like isoniazid and rifampin, and antibiotics such as streptomycin. It covers their mechanisms of action, effectiveness, and toxicity.
3. Classification of antitubercular drugs includes first-line agents that are most effective and least toxic, second-line alternatives for resistant cases, and third-line options that are least effective and most toxic. Developing improved drug combinations remains a priority area in tuberculosis treatment.
Geometrical isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different spatial arrangements of atoms or groups around a double bond. Geometrical isomerism arises from the inability of groups on opposite sides of a carbon-carbon double bond to rotate freely. Systems exhibiting geometrical isomerism include cis-trans isomers, where similar groups are on the same (cis) or opposite (trans) sides of the double bond, and E-Z isomers, where priority rules determine if higher priority groups are on the same (Z) or opposite (E) sides. Geometrical isomerism also occurs in compounds containing carbon-nitrogen or nitrogen-nitrogen double bonds.
1) The document discusses absolute and relative configuration of stereoisomers. Absolute configuration is assigned using CIP rules which assign R and S labels based on priority of groups around a chiral carbon.
2) Relative configuration refers to D and L labels assigned based on comparison to glyceraldehyde stereochemistry. Compounds related to D-glyceraldehyde have the D label and those related to L-glyceraldehyde have the L label.
3) Chirality can arise without a chiral carbon center. Allene and substituted biphenyls lack chiral carbons but have restricted rotation that leads to enantiomers with optical activity.
This document discusses stereochemistry and isomerism. It defines constitutional and stereoisomers, and describes different types of constitutional isomers like chain, position, functional, and tautomeric isomers. It also discusses configurational isomerism including optical isomers like enantiomers and diastereomers. Chirality and chiral centers are explained. Methods to represent 3D structures in 2D like Fischer projections are introduced. The document also covers topics like optical activity, polarimetry and racemic mixtures.
This document discusses anti-protozoal drugs used to treat protozoan infections. It describes how protozoan infections are caused by organisms formerly classified as protozoa and are contracted through insect vectors or contact with infected substances. It then outlines several classes of pharmaceuticals used to treat protozoan diseases, including nitroimidazole derivatives like metronidazole, diloxanide, iodoquinol, pentamidine, atovaquone, and eflornithine. It provides details on the structures and mechanisms of action of these various antiprotozoal agents.
Anti fungal Agents- Pharmacy-Medicinal ChemistryAkhil Nagar
This document discusses antifungal agents and their mechanisms of action. It focuses on azole antifungal agents, which inhibit the enzyme lanosterol 14-demethylase involved in ergosterol biosynthesis. This disrupts the fungal cell membrane. Specific azoles mentioned include clotrimazole, miconazole, ketoconazole, and fluconazole. Their structures contain an imidazole or triazole ring linked to aromatic groups, which allows binding to the enzyme's heme group. Halogen substitutions, particularly chlorine, increase potency by mimicking the enzyme's natural substrate. The azoles have fungistatic or fungicidal effects depending on concentration.
Sulphonamides- Anti bacterial- Medicinal Chemistry-PharmacyAkhil Nagar
Sulfonamides were the first effective systemic antibacterial drugs. Prontosil, a sulfonamide dye, was found to cure streptococcal infections and was the first prodrug. It is metabolized to release sulfanilamide. Sulfonamides are structural analogs of PABA and competitively inhibit dihydropteroate synthase, blocking folate synthesis. This arrests bacterial growth. Common sulfonamides include sulfamethizole, sulfisoxazole, and sulfadiazine. Cotrimoxazole is a combination of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim, a folate reductase inhibitor. Dapsone is a sulfone used to treat le
This document discusses anthelmintic drugs used to treat helminth infections. It begins by describing common types of helminths including tapeworms, roundworms, and flukes. It then discusses ideal properties of anthelmintic drugs and classifications based on mechanism of action, spectrum of activity, and type of helminth targeted. Specific drug classes and examples are provided, including benzimidazoles, tetrahydropyrimidines, piperazine, diethylcarbamazine, ivermectin, and others. Their mechanisms of action, clinical uses, safety profiles and pharmacokinetics are summarized for key anthelmintic drugs.
Urinary Tract Infection and Treatment-Pharmacy- Medicinal Chemistry lecture n...Akhil Nagar
This document discusses urinary tract infections (UTIs). It notes that UTIs are very common, especially in women, and outlines the symptoms, types, causes, and treatment of UTIs. The main types discussed are uncomplicated UTIs, complicated UTIs, and catheter-associated UTIs. It provides details on the classes of antibiotics used to treat UTIs, particularly quinolones and nitrofurantoin. It also explains the mechanisms of action and structures of common quinolone antibiotics like nalidixic acid, norfloxacin, and ciprofloxacin.
Malaria and Antimalarial Drugs and recent Advancement Akhil Nagar
The document discusses advances in anti-malarial therapy. It describes the life cycle and pathogenesis of the malaria parasite Plasmodium. Several classes of antimalarial drugs are discussed, including quinine derivatives like chloroquine, aminoquinolines, antifolates like pyrimethamine, and artemisinin derivatives. Screening methods for antimalarial compounds include in vitro tests measuring parasite growth inhibition using radiolabeled hypoxanthine or microscopy. Drug combinations can help address drug resistance.
This document discusses the properties and reactions of pyridine, a 6-membered heterocyclic aromatic compound. It notes that pyridine is more basic than pyrrole due to its electronegative nitrogen atom. The document explains that the bond length and stability of pyridine can be explained by its resonant structures, with the nitrogen atom causing deactivation of the aromatic ring. Several reactions of pyridine are also described, including electrophilic substitution, nucleophilic substitution, and reduction reactions. Finally, the document briefly mentions some medicinal uses of pyridine.
Quinoline and isoquinoline- heterocyclic chemistry- pharmacyAkhil Nagar
This document discusses the properties, synthesis, and reactions of quinoline and isoquinoline. Quinoline and isoquinoline are aromatic and undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions readily. Key synthesis methods discussed include the Skraup, Doebner-Miller, Friedlander, Bischler-Napieralski, Pictet-Gams, and Pomeranz-Fritsch reactions. The document also outlines various electrophilic addition, substitution, reduction, oxidation, and nucleophilic substitution reactions that quinoline and isoquinoline undergo. Finally, some medicinal uses of quinoline and isoquinoline are mentioned.
Dakin reaction- organic and Heterocyclic chemistry- As per PCI syllabusAkhil Nagar
The Dakin reaction involves the replacement of an aldehyde group on ortho and para hydroxy and ortho amino-benzaldehyde (or ketone) compounds with a hydroxyl group when reacted with alkaline hydrogen peroxide. The mechanism involves the aldehyde group being oxidized by hydrogen peroxide to a carboxyl group, which then undergoes base hydrolysis to form the hydroxyl substituted product.
Beckmann rearrangement- Organic and Heterocyclic chemistry- As per PCI syllabusAkhil Nagar
The Beckmann rearrangement is an acid-catalyzed reaction that rearranges ketoximes or aldoximes into amides. Sulfuric acid is commonly used as the acid due to its production of ammonium sulfate, an agricultural fertilizer, as a byproduct. The reaction mechanism involves the formation of an oxime, then an N-amide through a nitrilium ion intermediate and subsequent solvolysis and tautomerization to form the final amide product.
Wolff kishner reduction, Organic and heterocyclic chemistry, As per PCI sylll...Akhil Nagar
The Wolff-Kishner reduction is a chemical reaction that reduces ketones or aldehydes to hydrocarbons. It involves refluxing the carbonyl compound with hydrazine and a strong base like sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. This causes the carbonyl group to be reduced to a methylene group, forming the corresponding hydrocarbon. The reaction proceeds through formation of a hydrazone intermediate that is deprotonated and collapsed to lose dinitrogen and form an alkylanion, which is then protonated to yield the reduced product. This reduction method is advantageous over other methods as it avoids the use of strongly acidic conditions that could cause side reactions.
Does Over-Masturbation Contribute to Chronic Prostatitis.pptxwalterHu5
In some case, your chronic prostatitis may be related to over-masturbation. Generally, natural medicine Diuretic and Anti-inflammatory Pill can help mee get a cure.
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
ABDOMINAL TRAUMA in pediatrics part one.drhasanrajab
Abdominal trauma in pediatrics refers to injuries or damage to the abdominal organs in children. It can occur due to various causes such as falls, motor vehicle accidents, sports-related injuries, and physical abuse. Children are more vulnerable to abdominal trauma due to their unique anatomical and physiological characteristics. Signs and symptoms include abdominal pain, tenderness, distension, vomiting, and signs of shock. Diagnosis involves physical examination, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. Management depends on the severity and may involve conservative treatment or surgical intervention. Prevention is crucial in reducing the incidence of abdominal trauma in children.
8 Surprising Reasons To Meditate 40 Minutes A Day That Can Change Your Life.pptxHolistified Wellness
We’re talking about Vedic Meditation, a form of meditation that has been around for at least 5,000 years. Back then, the people who lived in the Indus Valley, now known as India and Pakistan, practised meditation as a fundamental part of daily life. This knowledge that has given us yoga and Ayurveda, was known as Veda, hence the name Vedic. And though there are some written records, the practice has been passed down verbally from generation to generation.
Histololgy of Female Reproductive System.pptxAyeshaZaid1
Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
Top 10 Best Ayurvedic Kidney Stone Syrups in India
Chemistry of histamine and antihistamine drugs (H-1 and H-2 antagonist)
1. CHEMISTRY OF HISTAMINE AND
ANTI-HISTAMINICDRUGS
(H-1AND H-2 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST)
1
Dr. Akhil Nagar
RC Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical
Education and Research
2. CONTENTS
Introduction to histamine
General history of histamine
Synthesis, release, metabolism of histamine
Histamine receptors
Pharmacological effects of histamine
Histamine related drugs
1. Physiological antagonist
2. Histamine release inhibitors
3. Histamine receptors antagonist
Recent advance in antihistaminic agents.
References
2Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
3. Histamine:
Histamine(1) is an endogenous substance β-imidazoylethylamine that
is present in essentially all mammalian tissues.
It is the first autocoids to be synthesized.
Henry Dale and Patrick Laidlaw identified and described the
properties of histamine in 1910-1911 (from: histos = tissue, with an
amine constituent).
Histamine is an organic nitrogen compound involved in local
immune responses as well as regulating physiological function
in the gut and acting as a neurotransmitter.
3Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
4. 1910 Histamine discovered
1933 First antihistamines (AHs) synthesized
(Peperoxan)
1942 Antihistamines introduced for clinical use
1943 First CNS effects of AHs reported
1955 Antiallergic effects of AHs described
1981 2nd generation AHs introduced
1986 Cardio toxic effects of AHs reported
1991 Human H2 receptor cloned
1993 Human H1 receptor cloned
1998 H1 receptor polymorphism described
1999 Human H3 receptor cloned
2000 Human H4 receptor cloned
General History of Histamine
4Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
5. Synthesis of histamine:
Histamine(1) is synthesized by decarboxylation of the amino acid L-
histidine(2) by the action of the enzyme histidine decarboxylase in the
various sites like mast cells, basophils, some neurons in CNS and
peripheral NS, enterochramaffin cells in GIT.
Once formed, histamine is stored at the site of synthesis.
5Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
6. Release of histamine:
1. Tissue injury
Any phsical and chemical that injure skin and mucosa tend to release
histamine from mast cells.
2. Allergic reaction
Food: eggs, peanuts, milk products, grains, strawberries, etc
Drugs: penicillins, sulfonamides, etc
Venoms: fire ants, snake, bee, etc
Foreign proteins: nonhuman insulin, serum proteins, etc
Enzymes: chymopapain
6Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
7. Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry 7
There are two stages:
1) First exposure to an antigen (inhalation,ingestion) results in the
formation of antibodies (type IgE) specific for that antigen. These
antibodies are fixed on mast cells.
2)Subsequent exposure to the same antigen
(may occur after a variable period, days,months)
Results in binding of the antigen to its specific IgE on mast cells and
cross linking of IgE receptors. This results in release of histamine.
8. Continued
3. Non allergic like
Morphine and other opioids, i.v.
Aspirin and other NSAIDs in asthma.
Vancomycin, i.v. (Red man syndrome), Polymixin B.
Some X-ray contrast media.
Succinylcholine, D-tubocurarine
Anaphylotoxins: c3a, c5a
Cold or solar urticaria.
8Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
9. Histamine Receptors
All are part of the super family of G-protein coupled receptors:
1. H1 - Gq coupled to Phospholipase C (PLC).
2. H2 - Gs coupled to Adenylyl Cyclase (AC).
3. H3 - Gi coupled to AC, also to K- channels and reduce Ca influx,
inhibit presynaptic neurotransmitter release.
4. H4 - available data consistent with coupling to Gi/o in mast cells,
as well as eosinophils, that can trigger calcium mobilization
mast cell chemotaxis.
9Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
10. Receptors: Distribution and Function
10Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
Location Type of receptor Effect Treatment
H1 Throughout the body,
specifically in smooth muscles,
on vascular endothelial cells, in
the heart and the CNS
G-protein
coupled, linked
to intercellular
Gq, which
activates
phospholipase C.
Mediate an increase
in vascular
permeability at sites
of inflammation
induced by
histamine and
bronchoconstriction
, vasodilation,
separation of
endothelial cells,
pain and itching,
allergic rhinitis,
motion sickness.
Allergies, nausea,
sleep disorders
H2 In more specific locations in the
body mainly in gastric parietal
cells, a low level can be found in
vascular smooth muscle,
neutrophils, CNS, heart, uterus
G-protein
coupled, linked
to intercellular
Gs which
activates adenyl
cyclase
Increases the
release of gastric
acid.
Stomach ulcers
11. Location Type of receptor Effect Treatment
H3 Found mostly in the CNS, with a
high level in the thalamus,
caudate nucleus and cortex, also
a low level detected in small
intestine, testis and prostate.
G-protein
coupled, possibly
linked to
intercellular Gi
Feedback inhibition
of histamine
synthesis and
release. They also
control release of
DA, GABA, ACh,
5-HT & NE.
Obesity
H4 They were recently discovered
in 2000. They are widely
expressed in components of the
immune system such as the
spleen, thymus and leukocytes.
Gi/o-protein
coupled
Anti-inflammatory In addition to
benefiting allergic
conditions,
research in the h4
receptor may lead
to the treatment of
autoimmune
diseases.
(rheumatoid
arthritis and IBS)
and Mediate mast
cell chemotaxis.
Continued
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry 11
12. Effect of histamine release
(Pathophysiologic release)
Source of release Receptor Site of receptor Effect
Mast cells
(hypersensitivity)
H1 Smooth muscles 1. Bronchoconstriction
2. Contraction of GIT
H1 Endothelium 1. Vasodilatation
2. Increased capillary
permeability leading
to edema
H1 Sensory nerve endings 1. Pain and itch
H2 Smooth muscles of
blood vessels (only in
large doses)
1. Vasodilatation
H4 Immune active cells
(bone marrow, WBC)
1. Chemotaxis
12Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
13. Continued
Source of release Receptor Site of receptor Effect
ECL - cells in the
stomach
H2 Oxyntic cells of the
stomach
1. HCL secretion
Brain
(histaminergic
neurons – cell
bodies of these
neurons are found
in the
hypothalamus and
axons extend to all
areas of the brain)
H1 and H2 Post synaptic neurons
at all areas of the rain
1. 1- Arousal
2. Decreased appetite
H3 Presynaptic
histaminergic neurons
in the brain
1. Inhibit histamine
release producing
sleep
2. Modulate the release
of other
neurotransmitters
13Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
14. Termination of HistamineAction:
1. Cellular uptake
Uptake is a temperature and partially sodium dependent process
and uptake of histamine by many cells, like mast cells.
2. Metabolism:
The enzyme histamine N-methyltransferase (HMT), is widely
distributed among mammalian tissues and catalyses the transfer of
a methyl group from S-adenosyl-L-methionine(SAM) to the ring
tele-nitrogen of histamine, producing N-methylhistamine and S-
adenosyl-L-homocysteine. Histamine is also subject to oxidative
deamination by diamine oxidase(DAO) yielding imidazole acetic
acid, a physiologically inactive product excreted in the urine.
Similarly N-methylhistamine is converted by both DAO and
monoamine oxidase(MAO) to N-methyl imidazole acetic acid.
3. Very little amount is excreted
14Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
15. Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry 15
Histamine(2), N-methylhistamine(3), N-methylimidazole acetic acid(4),
Imidazole acetic acid(5), Imidazole acetic acid riboside(6)
HMT- histamine N-methyltransferase, DAO-diamine oxidase, PRT-
phosphoribosyl transferase
Metabolism of Histamine
16. Symptoms associated with
histamine release from mast cells
Mild cutaneous release:
Erythema, urticaria, and/or itching.
Moderate release:
Skin reactions, tachycardia, moderate hypotension, mild respiratory distress.
Severe release (anaphylactic):
Severe hypotension, ventricular fibrillations, cardiac arrest, bronchospasm,
respiratory arrest.
16Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
17. Pharmacological Effects of Histamine
Ranges from mild allergic symptoms to anaphylactic shock.
Involves both the H1 and H2 receptors
dilatation of small blood vessels flushing (H1).
decreased TPR and BP (H1 initial response, H2 sustained reaction)
increased capillary permeability, edema (H1).
Triple Response ofWillis
Subdermal histamine injection causes:
1. Red spot (few mm) in seconds: direct vasodilation effect , H1
receptor mediated.
2. Flare (1cm beyond site): axonal reflexes, indirect vasodilation,
and itching, H1 receptor mediated.
3. Wheal (1-2 min) same area as original spot, edema due to
increased capillary permeability, H1 receptor mediated.
17Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
18. SelectedActions of Histamine in Humans
Vascular
H1 – in vascular endothelium NO and PG release
vasodilation. In coronary vessels vasoconstriction. Increased
permeability of post capillary venules
H2 – in vascular smooth muscle cells vasodilation mediated by
cAMP
Heart
H1 - decreased AV conduction
H2 - increased chronotropy,
decreased inotropy
H1, H2 - increased automaticity
18Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
19. Continued
Gastrointestinal System
H2 - acid, fluid and pepsin secretion
H1 - increased intestinal motility and secretions
Cutaneous Nerve Endings
H1 - pain and itching
19Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
20. Histamine related drugs:
1. Physiologic antagonists:
Epinephrine has smooth muscle actions opposite to histamine but by
acting on different types of receptors. It is used in conditions of
massive release of histamine.
2. Histamine release inhibitors:
Reduce immunologic release of histamine from mast cells.
a) Mast cell stabilizers: Cromolyn and Nedocromil
20Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
21. Nidocromil(7)
Nedocromil sodium is a medication used to prevent wheezing,
shortness of breath, and other breathing problems caused by asthma.
Liquid preparations are available for use for allergic eye reactions.
Nedocromil acts as a mast cell stabilizer, inhibits the degranulation of
mastcells, prevents release of histamine and tryptase, so preventing
the synthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
21Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
22. Cromolyn(8)
It is used for prophylactic management of bronchial asthma and
prevention of exercise induced bronchospasm.
It’s solution is used for the prevention and treatment of allergic
rhinitis.
Oral concentrate is used to treat mastocytosis (diarrhea, flushing,
headaches, vomiting, urticaria, abdominal pain, nausea, and itching).
22Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
23. Lodoxamide(9) Pemirolast(10)
It is available in 0.1% solution.
It is used in the treatment of
ocular disorders including
vernal keratoconjuctivitis,
vernal conjuctivitis, vernal
keratitis.
Adverse reactions including
burning, stinging, or discomfort
on instillation.
It is also available in 0.1% sterile
ophthalmic solution for topical
administration to the eye.
This drug product is for ocular
administration only and not for
injection or oral use.
It should be used with caution
during pregnancy or while nursing,
since its safety has not been
studied under these circumstances.
23Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
24. Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry 24
3. Histamine receptor antagonists
Histamine H1- Antagonists
H1 antagonists may be defined as drugs that
competitively inhibit the action of
histamine tissues containing H1 receptors.
25. Different Generation ofAntihistamines
1st Generation:
Pyrilamine, Antazoline, Tripelennamine, Diphenhydramine,
Clemastine, Chlorpheniramine, Triprolidine, Promethazine,
Mequitazine, Hydroxyzine, Cyclizine, Azatadine,
2nd Generation:
Terfenadine, Astemizole, Cetirizine, Acrivastine, Ebastine,
Levocabastine, Loratadine, Mizolastine
New or 3rd Generation:
Levocetirizine, Carebastine, Desloratadine, Fexofenadine
25Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
26. First Generation:
Sedating
Lipophilic compounds that readily cross the blood-brain barrier
Rapidly absorbed from the GIT
Widely distributed
Cross blood-brain barrier
Extensively metabolized by the Cytochrome P450 and metabolites are
active and are excreted by the kidney
Duration of action 4-6 hours.
26Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
27. General features:
2 aromatic rings, connected to a central carbon, nitrogen, or oxygen.
Spacer between central atom and the amine, usually 2-3 carbons in
length. (Can be linear, ring, branched, saturated or unsaturated).
The amine is substituted with small alkyl groups.
Chirality at X and having the rings in different planes increases
potency of the drug.
27Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
28. Aminoalkyl ethers (Ethanolamines):
Oldest and most effective antihistamine on the market.
Available over the counter.
Because it induces sedation, it’s used in nonprescription sleep aids
such as Tylenol PM.
Also inhibits the reuptake of serotonin, which led to the search for
viable antidepressants with similar structures.
Oral dose: 25-50mg/daily
28Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
Diphenhydramine(11):
29. Doxylamine(12) Carbinoxamine(13)
Second in effectiveness of anti-
allergy activity only to Benadryl.
Active ingredient in NyQuil.
Potent anti-cholinergic effects.
Oral dose: 12.5-25mg/4-6 hours
Is used to treat Hay fever and is
especially popular to children due its
its mild taste.
After 21 reported deaths in children
under 2, its now only marketed to
children above 3 (FDA, June 2006)
Oral dose: 4-8 mg t.i.d. or q.i.d.
29Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
30. Clemastine(14) Dimenhydrinate(15)
Exhibits fewer side effects
than most antihistamines.
Widely used as an
antipruritic (stops itching).
Oral dose: 4-8mg t.i.d.
q.i.d.
Anti-emetic (anti nausea).
Also causes strong sedation.
Readily crosses the BBB.
Oral dose: 50-100mg/4 hours.
30Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
31. Alkylamines:
Isomerism is an important factor in this class of drugs, which is due to
the positioning and fit of the molecules in the H1-receptor binding site.
These drugs have fewer sedative and GI adverse effects, but a greater
incidence of CNS stimulation.
These drugs lack the “spacer molecule” (which is usually a nitrogen or
oxygen) between the two aromatic rings and at least one of the rings
has nitrogen included in the aromatic system.
These agents most active H1 antagonists.
They exhibits anticholinergic activity.
The primary metabolites for these series includes N-dealkylation and
oxidation of the terminal amino moiety followed by glycine
conjugation has also been found.
31Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
32. Chlorpheniramine(16) Brompheniramine(17)
Originally used to prevent
allergic conditions
Shown to have antidepressant
properties and inhibit the
reuptake of serotonin
Oral dose: 4mg/4-6 hours.
Available over the counter
Used to treat the common cold by
relieving runny nose, itchy,
watery eyes and sneezing
Oral dose: 4mg t.i.d. or q.i.d.
32Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
33. Triprolidine(18) Pheniramine(19)
Used to alleviate the symptoms
associated with allergies.
Can be combined with other cold
medicine to relieve “flu-like”
symptoms.
In this nitrogen is present in
pyrolidine ring.
E-isomer is 1000 times more
active than Z-isomer.
Used most often to treat hay
fever or urticaria (hives).
Antihistamine component of
Visine-A.
Oral dose: 20-40mg t.i.d.
33Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
34. Piperazines
Structurally related to the ethylenediamines and the ethanolamines
and thus produce significant anti-cholinergic effects
Used most often to treat motion sickness, vertigo, nausea and
vomiting
These compounds are moderately potent anhihistaminics with a low
incidence of drowsiness.
They have slow onset and long duration of action.
Some of these compounds shows teratogenic effects e.g.,
norchlorcyclizine
The primary pathway for the metabolism involves N-oxidation and N-
demethylation, and both of these metabolites devoid of antihistaminic
activity.
34Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
35. Chlorcyclizine(20) Hydroxyzine(21)
This drug is used to treat motion
sickness, urticaria, hay fever,
and certain other allergic
conditions.
Disubstitution or substitution of
halogen in the 2 or 3 positon of
the benzhydryl rings results in a
much lesss potent compounds.
In addition to treating itches and
irritations, its an antiemetic, a
weak analgesic and an anxiolytic
(treat anxiety)
It is highly lipophilic so have
CNS depressent effects.
Oral dose: 25-50mg/4-6 hours.
35Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
36. Cyclizine(22)
Used to treat the symptoms associated with motion sickness, vertigo
and post-operation following administration of general anaesthesia
and opiods
Mechanism of inhibiting motion sickness is not well understood, but it
may act on the labyrinthine apparatus and the chemoreceptor trigger
zone (area of the brain which receives input and induces vomiting)
Oral dose: 50mg/ 4-6 hours
36Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
37. Meclizine(23) Cetirizine(24)
It is most commonly used to
inhibit nausea and vomiting as
well as vertigo, however it does
cause drowsiness
Oral dose: 25-50mg
It is primary acid metabolite of
hydroxyzine resulting from
complete oxidation of the
primary alcohol moiety. This
compound is zwitterionic and
relatively polar and thus does not
penetrate the BBB readily.
It has no cardiac side effects.
Oral dose: 5-10mg q.d.
37Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
38. Tricyclics
These drugs are structurally related to tricyclic antidepressants, which
explains why they have cholinergic side effects
Tricyclics compounds mainly contains phenothiazine and
dibenzocycloheptane and dibenzocycloheptane derivates.
Here unbranched propyl chain is required as linkage between tricyle
and amino group for antihistaminic activity.
Concurrent use of the alcoholic beverages and other CNS depressents
with the phenothiazines should be avoided.
The combination of lengthening of the side chain and substitution of
lipophilic groups in the 2 position of the aromatic ring results in
compounds with decreased antihistaminic activity, and increased
psychotherapeutic properties.
38Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
39. Promethazine (Phenegran)(25)
This drug has extremely strong anticholinergic and sedative effects
It was originally used as an antipsychotic, however now it is most
commonly used as a sedative or antinausea drug (also severe morning
sickness) and requires a prescription
Oral dose:12.5mg/4-6 hours or 25mg q.d.
Drug Interactions: Masks ototoxicity of aminoglycoside antibiotics. It
may enhance the sedative effects of CNS depressants like alcohol,
hypnotics, barbiturates and opioids.
Potentially Fatal: Ventricular arrhythmias when used with drugs that
prolong QT interval.
39Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
40. Cyproheptadine(26)
It is a 5-HT2 receptor antagonist and also blocks calcium channels.
Used to treat hay fever and also to stimulate appetite in people with
anorexia
Dose: PO Allergic conditions As HCl: 4 mg 3 times/day. Usual: 12-
16 mg/day in 3-4 divided doses, up to 32 mg/day if needed.
Prevention and treatment of migraine and other vascular
headaches As HCl: 4 mg, may repeat 30 mins later. Not to exceed 8
mg in a 4-6-hour period. Maintenance: 4 mg 4-6 hour.
40Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
41. Ketotifen (Zaditor)(27)
This drug is available in two forms: an ophthalmic form used to treat
allergic conjunctivitis or itchy red eyes and an oral form used to
prevent asthma attacks.
It has several adverse side effects including drowsiness, weight gain,
dry mouth, irritability and increased nose bleeds
It may impair tasks requiring mental alertness e.g. driving or operating
machinery, history of epilepsy, pregnancy, lactation,Children <3 yr.
Dose : Asthma prophylaxis; allergic condition 1 mg twice daily, up
to 2 mg twice daily if needed. Opthalmic allegies 0.025% soln: Instill
1 drop twice daily.
41Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
42. Alimemazine (Vallergan)(28)
This drug is used to treat itchiness and hives that results from allergies
Since it causes drowsiness, it is useful for rashes that itch worse at
night time
It is also used to sedate young children before operations.
It Can mask signs of ototoxicity caused by aminoglycosides.
Potentially Fatal: Increased toxic effects of ergot alkaloids and
methotrexate.
Dose: 10 mg 2-3 times/day
42Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
43. Azatadine(29)
This drug is used to treat symptoms of allergies and the common cold
such as sneezing, runny nose, itchy watery eyes, itching, hives and
rashes.
Special Precautions: Angle-closure glaucoma, increased intraocular
pressure,peptic ulcer, pyloroduodenal, epilepsy; renal and hepatic
impairment. It may impair ability to drive or operate machinery;
pregnancy.
Dose:1 mg twice daily, may increase to 2 mg twice daily if needed.
43Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
44. Methdilazine(30)
First generation antihistamine with anticholinergic properties.
Contraindications Neonates; narrow-angle glaucoma; GI tract/urinary
outflow obstruction, paralytic ileus.
Special Precautions: Elderly; caution in driving; peptic ulcer;
epilepsy; severe CV disease, benign prostatic hyperplasia; pregnancy
and lactation; asthma, bronchitis; hepatic or renal impairment;
Parkinson's disease. Drug Interactions Potentiates CNS depressant
action of various drugs. Antimuscarinic effects potentiated by MAOIs,
atropine and TCAs. May reduce effect of levodopa.
Dose :8-16 mg twice daily
44Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
45. Ethylenediamines
In all of the compounds the aliphatic or terminal amino group is a
significantly more basic than the nitrogen atom bonded to the diaryl
moiety so reduction in electron density on nitrogen decreases basicity.
Thus the non bonded electrons on the diaryl nitrogen delocalised by
the aliphatic amino group in the ethylenediamines is sufficiently basic
for the formation of pharmaceutically useful salts.
Anti cholinergic effects are lower than other antihistamincs.
They are metabolised by N-glucuronidation, N-oxidation, pyridyl
oxidation.
The piperazine and phenothiazine type antihistamines also contain
ethylenediamine moiety.
45Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
46. Tripelennamine(31) Pyrilamine(32)
It has high frequency of CNS
depressant and GI side effects.
Dose :25-50 mg 4-6 hrly. Max:
600 mg/day.
Adverse Drug Reactions:
Sedation; CNS depression;
antimuscarinic effects; GI
disturbances. Potentially Fatal:
Blood dyscrasis.
Because of local anesthetic action, the
drug should not chewed, but taken
with food.
Adverse reaction: Psychomotor
impairment; headache; paraesthesias,
extrapyramidal symptoms, tremor,
sleep and GI disturbances,
hypersensitivity reactions and blood
dyscrasis; hypotension; hair loss;
tinnitus.
46Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
47. Methapyrilene(33) Antazoline(34)
Trans conformation is preferred
It was found to be potential
carcinogen
It is available in hydrochloride
salt
Does: 4-5mg t.i.d.
It has twice local aneshtehtic potency
of procaine and exibits anticholinergic
actions.
Belongs to the class of topical
antiallergic preparations, excluding
corticosteroids. Used as nasal
decongestants.
Dose: 0.5% solution for opthalmic
use.
47Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
48. Mequitazine(35)
It is used to treat allergies and rhinitis
Contraindication: Severe liver disease premature infants of full term
neonates.
Special precautions: Pregnancy, lactation, severe cardio vascular
disorders, asthma
Adverse drug reactions : CNS depression including slight drowsiness
to deep sleep.
Contraindications: Severe liver disease; premature infants or full-term
neonates
Dose: 5mg twice daily
48Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
49. Pharmacological Properties
Effects related to reversible competitive antagonism of H1
receptors (present in both first and second generations)
1- On smooth Muscles:
They inhibit effects of histamine on smooth muscles, especially the
constriction of the bronchi.
2- On blood vessels:
They inhibit the vasodilator effects that are mediated by activation of
H1 receptors on endothelial cells (synthesis/release of NO and other
mediators). Residual vasodilation is due to H2 receptors on smooth
muscle and can be suppressed by administration of an H2 antagonist.
3- On capillary permeability:
They inhibit the increased capillary permeability and formation of
edema brought about by histamine.
49Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
50. Effects not related to blockade of H1 receptors
(present in some of the first generation drugs)
1. Anticholinergic Effects:
Many of the first-generation H1 antagonists inhibit responses to
acetylcholine that are mediated by muscarinic receptors (have
atropine-like actions) e.g., promethazine. The second-generation
H1 antagonists have no effect on muscarinic receptors.
Anticholinergic effects include dry mouth, blurred vision,
constipation and urinary retention.
Perhaps because of their anticholinergic effects, some of the H1
antagonists have suppressant effects on drug-induced parkinsonism
symptoms.
50Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
51. Continued
2. On the central nervous system:
Therapeutic doses of most of the first generation histamine H1
receptor antagonists produce CNS depression manifest as sedation.
Excitation rather than sedation may occur in children and rarely in
adults
Overdoses produce central excitation resulting in convulsions,
particularly in children. Individual variability as regards the CNS
exist.
Some of the first generation drugs can prevent motion sickness
The second-generation ("nonsedating") H1 antagonists do not affect
the CNS because they do not cross the blood-brain barrier when given
in therapeutic doses.
51Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
52. Drug interactions
Co administering first generation H1 antihistamines together with
Cytochrome P450 inducers such as the benzodiazepines will decrease
their activity.
Co administering first generation H1 antihistamines with drugs that
competitively inhibit P450 such as the macrolides, antifungals or
calcium antagonists will increase their activity.
Additive with classical antimuscarinics.
Masks ototoxicity produced by aminoglycosides. Increases gastric
degradation of levodopa and decreases its absorption by reduction of
gastric emptying.
Potentially Fatal: Potentiates CNS depression with alcohol,
barbiturates, analgesics, sedatives and neuroleptics. Additive
antimuscarinic action with MAOIs, atropine and TCAs.
52Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
53. Second generation antihistamines
Non-sedating.
Poorly penetrate the blood-brain barrier.
Rapidly absorbed from the GIT.
Widely distributed.
Do not cross the blood-brain barrier (less lipid soluble).
Elimination: Cetirizine (urine) and Fexofenadine (bile).
Recent studies have also shown that these drugs also have anti-
inflammatory activity.
The structure of these drugs varies and there are no common
structural features associated with them.
53Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
54. Acrivastine(36) Loratadine(37)
This drug relieves itchy rashes
and hives.
It is non-sedating because it does
not cross the BBB.
Dose: 8 mg 3 times/day.
It is the only drug of its class
available over the counter.
It has long lasting effects and does
not cause drowsiness because it
does not cross the BBB.
54Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
55. Astemizole(38)
This drug has a long duration of action.
It suppresses the formation of edema and pruritis.
It has been taken off the market in most countries because of
adverse interactions with erythromycin and grapefruit juice.
Dose: 10mg per day.
Drug Interactions Imidazole, triazole
antifungals, and the macrolide
antibacterials inhibit the hepatic
metabolism of astemizole.Avoid
concomitant administration of other
potentially arrhythmogenic drugs.
Co-administration with diuretics may
cause electrolyte imbalance.
Concurrent use with terfenadine is
not recommended.
55Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
56. Terfenadine(39) Azelastine(40)
It was formerly used to treat
allergic conditions
In the 1990’s it was removed
from the market due to the
increased risk of cardiac
arrythmias. Risk is increased if
grapeful juice or agents that
inhibit Cytochrome P450 in liver.
Dose: 12 yr and >50 kg: 60-
120 mg/day in the morning or 60
mg twice daily. Max: 120
mg/day.
It is a mast cell stablilizer also.
Overdosage: Accidental oral
ingestion of large doses may lead
to tremor, convulsions, decreased
muscle tone and salivation.
Dose: Conjunctivitis As 0.05%
soln: Instill 1-2 drops twice daily.
Nasal Rhinitis 140 mcg into each
nostril twice daily.
56Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
57. Levocabastine(41) Olopatadine(42)
It is used as eye drops to treat
allergic conjunctivitis.
Dose : Allergic conjunctivitis As
0.05% susp: Instill 1 drop 2-4
times/day. Nasal Allergic rhinitis As
0.05% nasal spray: 1 spray into each
nostril 2-4 times/day.
It is used as eye drops to treat allergic
conjunctivitis.
Dose :Ophth As 0.1% soln: Instill 1-
2 drops twice daily 6-8 hrly.
Alternatively, as 0.2% soln: Instill 1
drop once daily.
(42)
57Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
58. Mizolastine(43) Mebhydrolin(44)
It is fast acting and does not
prevent the actual release of
histamine from mast cells, just
prevent the binding to receptors.
Side effects include dry mouth
and throat.
It is used for symptomatic relief
of allergic symptoms
Dose: PO 100-300 mg/day.
Administration: Administration
Should be taken with food.
(Take during or shortly after
meals.)
58Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
59. Pharmacokinetics:
Loratadine (L), Fexofenadine (F) well absorbed and are excreted
mainly unmetabolized form.
Loratadine are primarily excreted in the urine.
Fexofenadine is primarily excreted in the feces.
They induce Cytochome P450 liver enzymes.
59Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
60. Adverse effects:
In general, these agents have a much lower incidence of adverse
effects than the first generation agents.
Terfenadine (seldane) and astemizole (hismanal) were removed from
the market due to effects on cardiac K+ channels - prolong QT
interval (potentially fatal arrhythmia)
Cetirizine appears to have more CNS actions (sedative) than
Fexofenadine or Loratadine. recommended that cetirizine not be
used by pilots.
Erythromycin and Ketoconazole inhibit the metabolism of
Fexofenadine and Loratadine in healthy subjects, this caused no
adverse effects.
60Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
61. Third generation antihistamines
These drugs are derived from second generation antihistamines.
They are either the active enantiomer or metabolite of the second
generation drug designed to have increased efficacy and fewer side
effects.
61Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
62. PK, lower drug-drug
interactions
Receptor affinity and
selectivity, efficacy
Safety, lower
cardiotoxicity
Different Development Objectives
General trend: improve tolerability and safety (less to no
sedation; reduce the cholinergic effects)
Targeted Molecules
for improvement
Type of Improvement
Loratadine
Hydroxyzine
Terfenadine
Astemizole
Objective
Class
Piperidine
Piperazine
Piperidine
Piperidine
Isomer Purification
Levocetirizine
Active metabolite
Desloratadine
Cetirizine
Fexofenadine
No possible improvement
not even designed as an antihistamine; discovered
during research of calcium channel-blocking agents
62Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
63. Levocetirizine(45)
This drug is the active R(-)enantiomer of cetirizine and is believed to
be more effective and have fewer adverse side effects.
Also it is not metabolized and is likely to be safer than other drugs due
to a lack of possible drug interactions (Tillement).
It does not cross the BBB and does not cause significant drowsiness.
It has been shown to reduce asthma attacks by 70% in children.
Dose: PO 10 mg once daily.
63Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
64. Deslortadine(46) Fexofenadine(47)
It is the active metabolite of
Lortadine.
Adverse Drug Reactions
Headache, fatigue, somnolence,
dizziness; nausea, dyspepsia;
xerostomia, dysmenorrhoea;
pharyngitis.
Dose: PO 5 mg once daily
It was developed as an alternative
to Terfenadine.
Fexofenadine was proven to be
more effective and safe.
Bioavailability may be increased by
verapamil. Efficacy may be reduced
by rifampin.
Dose:PO Seasonal allergic rhinitis
120 mg/day once daily. Chronic
idiopathic urticaria 180 mg/day
once daily.
64Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
68. Development in H2 antagoinst
Must bind but not activate H2 receptor site
Addition of a functional group to bind with another binding region
and prevent the conformational change
Addition of aromatic ring was unsuccessful.
Addition of non-polar, hydrophobic substituents, none antagonists,
Histamine produces agonist activity on both H1 and H2 receptors
but methylation at 4 position of the imidazole heterocyle (48) of
the histamine produces selective agonist at atrial histamine
receptors (H2)
68Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
69. 4-Methylhistamine(48)
Not an antagonist, but highly H2 selective Conformational isomers
show preferential binding.
4-methylhistamine
Conformation I
4-methylhistamine
Conformation II
69Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
70. Na –Guanylhistamine(49)
First partial agonist
First signs of antagonistic activity.
Still allows partial conformational change.
70Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
71. Carbon chain lengthened
Two-carbon chain, speculation of a carboxylate binding
region
Three-carbon chain, speculation of different binding region
(50)
(51)
71Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
72. Cimetidine(54)
Toxicity associated with the thiourea structural feature is eliminated
by replacing the thiourea sulfur with a cyano-imino function
It reduces the hepatic metabolism by the Cytochrome P450
It has weak androgenic effect.
Gynecomastia may occur if treated for one month or more.
Dose: PO Duodenal ulcer; Benign gastric ulcer Initial: 800 mg/day
at bedtime. Duodenal ulcers: ≥4 wk. Gastric ulcer: ≥6 wk.
Maintenance: 400 mg 1-2 times/day. Stress ulceration of upper GI
tract 200-400 mg 4-6 hrly. Zollinger-Ellison syndrome 300-400 mg
4 times/day.
72Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
73. Famotidine(55)
Increased prolactin levels or impotent have been reported.
No observable inhibition of cytochrome P-450.
It is also useful in Zollinger-ellison syndrome.
Absorption is lower (40 to 45% bioavilable).
Dose: PO Benign gastric and duodenal ulceration 40 mg/day at
bedtime for 4-8 week. GERD 20 mg twice daily for 6-12 week. May
continue to prevent recurrence. Zollinger-Ellison syndrome Initial:
20 mg/6 hour, up to 800 mg/day if needed. Dyspepsia 10 mg twice
daily. Benign gastric and duodenal ulceration 20 mg/12 hour.
73Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
74. Ranitidine(56)
Some antacid may reduce absorption so not taken within 1 hour of
administration of the drug.
With Clarithromycin it is useful in duodenal blocker associated with
H. Pylori infection.
It is excreted as S-oxide, and desmethyl ranitidine.
Dose :daily for 6 week. Short-term symptomatic dyspepsia 75 mg,
up to 4 doses/day if needed. Max: 2 week of continuous use at each
time. Prophylaxis during NSAID treatment 150 mg twice
daily.Stress ulceration of upper GI tract Priming dose: 50 mg via
inj, then 125-250 mcg/kg/hr via infusion, then transfer to PO 150 mg
twice daily once oral feeding is resumed. IV/IM Acid aspiration
during general anesthecia 50 mg 45-60 mins before the induction of
anesthesia.
74Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
75. Continued
Administration : It may be taken with or without food.
Contraindications: Porphyria.
Special Precautions :Exclude malignancy before treating gastric
ulcer. Renal and hepatic impairment. Infants, pregnancy and lactation.
Adverse Drug Reactions: Headache, dizziness. Rarely hepatitis,
thrombocytopaenia, leucopaenia, hypersensitivity, confusion,
gynaecomastia, impotence, somnolence, vertigo, hallucinations.
Potentially Fatal: Anaphylaxis, hypersensitivity reactions.
Drug Interactions: Antacids may interfere with absorption. It may
decrease the GI absorption of Ketoconazole. Smoking may decrease
the plasma levels of ranitidine. It may cause an increase in the
bioavailability of furosemide.
75Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
76. 76
Histamine receptors –
H1- Allergic responses. Watery eyes, congestion, etc. from allergies.
Anaphylaxis – bronchial larynx constriction.
Skin allergic response – reddening, rashes, welts.
Edema from injury.
H2 – Gastric secretion. Important for ulcer treatment and acid reflux
H3 – CNS receptors. There are also H1 receptors in the CNS.
Antihistamines are also used for motion sickness. In general their
antimuscarinic effects are similar to that of scopolamine, although weaker.
77. 77
HN N
NH2
H
HN N
NH2
H
CH3
HN N
NH2
H3C
HN N
NH2
H
H
H3C
(R)-methyl histamine
H3 Agonist
4-methylhistamine
H2 Agonist
2-methyl histamine
H1 Agonist
Histamine
Histamine Agonists
79. 79
H
O
N
CH3
CH3
R1
N
CH3
CH3
O
SAR Prototype
R1 is a small group like H, CH3,OCH3
Diphenhydramine
(Benadryl)
Aminoalkylethers
O
NCH3
Cl
Cl
N
N
CH3
Cl
O
N
CH3
CH3
Diphenylpyraline
Meclizine
Good H1 antagonist, but also
good antimuscarinic
Clemastine
(Tavist)
Piperazine/N-heterocycle Series
Antihistamine SAR
80. 80
AlkylAmines
Long Duration, less sedation than ethylenediamines, ethanolamines. The “next best
thing” until the “2nd generation” were developed.
N
N
CH3
CH3
R
N
N
CH3
N
H3C
Cl
Pyrrobutamine (Pyronil)R = H Pheniramine
R = Cl Chlorpheniramine (Chlortrimeton)
R = Br Brompheniramine (Dimetane)
Triprolidine (Actidil)
N
CH3
CH3
N
Dimethindene (Forhistal)
N CH3
Phenindamine (Nolahist)
81. 81
A Cl at the 2-position weakens H1 activity relative to antimuscarinic activity and D2
antagonist activity
N
NCH3
N
S
CH2CH2N(CH3)2
N
S
CH2CHN(CH3)2
CH3
Mebhydrolin
Fenthazine
Promethazine
(Pheregan)
N
S
CH2CH2CH2N(CH3)2
Cl
Chlorpromazine
N
N
N
N
OCH3
H
F Astemizole
(Hismanal)
RigidAnalogs(I)
83. 83
Hismanal was FDA approved in 1988 as an antihistamine for allergy and hay fever symptom relief.
The FDA first warned consumers and healthcare providers of new safety information regarding
Hismanal February 9, 1998 due to the risk of death, cardiovascular adverse events, anaphylaxis, and
serious drug interactions.
In addition, Hismanal labeling was changed to stress avoiding the use of Hismanal in combination
with certain other medications and for liver disorder patients to completely avoid its' use.
After a series of labeling changes and warnings Hismanal was recalled on June 21, 1999.
N
N
N
N
OCH3
H
F Astemizole
(Hismanal)
Astemizole
84. 84
Terfenadine was discontinued when it became apparent that there was a high
frequency of heart arrythmia associated with the drug. Fexofenadine is a
metabolite and is the activated form responsible for antihistamine activity. In
patients with compromised liver metabolism, or when the presence of other
drugs limited the metabolism of terfenadine, persistent levels resulted in the
observed arrythmias. Therefore, the fexofenadine replaced terfenadine (1997).
Ventricular Arrythmias are not good!
N
OH
O
Cl
F
Haloperidol (Haldol)
Prototype butyrophenone antipsychotic
10xChlorpromazine
Antihistamines“related”tobutyrophenones
87. 87
Gastric receptors are pharmacologically distinct. The classic H1
antagonists don’t interact with H2 receptors. Antihistamines are
an important treatment for gastric disorders; antacids, ulcer
treatment, acid-reflux disease.
H2 Histamine antagonists.
89. References
Zhang, M-Q.; Leurs, R.; Timmerman, H. Histamine H1-receptor
antagonists.In Burger’s Medicinal Chemistry and Drug Discovery; 5th
Ed.; Wily-Interscince: New York, Vol. 5, 495-559; 1995.
Nelson, W. L. Antihistamines and related antiallergic and antiulcer agents.
In Foye's Principles of Medicinal Chemistry. Williams D. A, Lemke T. L .
5th Ed.; Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: Philadelphia, 2002.
Jaime N. D.,William A.R.: WILSON & GISVOLD’S Textbook of organic
Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry : Antineoplastic agents; Ch.
12:10th edition:Lippincott Williams & Wilkins:343-401;1998.
Zhang , M.; Thurmond, R. L.; Dunford, P. J. The histamine H4 receptor: A
novel modulator of inflammatory and immune disorders, Pharmacology
& therapeutics; vol-113, 594-606, 2007.
Macor E.J., Annual Reports in Medicinal Chemistry;first edition;Elsevier
publication;42 ;chp 5; Recent advance in the histamine H3 and
antihistaminc drugs : 76-78; 2007.
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry 89
90. References
Macor E.J., Annual Reports in Medicinal Chemistry;first
edition;Elsevier publication:33; chp 30; 340-356; 1998.
Laurence L. B.:Goodman & Gilman's the pharmacological basis of
therapeutics;chp 51, histaminic agents and antagonist, 11th edition:
Medical publishing division;629-640, 2006.
Mohan Harsh., Textbook of Pathology: chp 6; 141-143, 2005.
Hancock, A. A. et al. Antiobesity effects of A-331440, a novel non-
imidazole histamine H3 receptor antagonist. European Journal of
Pharmacology, vol-487, 183-197, 2004.
J.P. de Esch Iwan. et al., The histamine H4 receptor s a new
therapeutic target for inflammaion, Trends in Pharmaceutical
Sciences, vol-26, 462-469, 2005.
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry 90