Chapter 2 locomotion and support

CHAPTER 2
SUPPORT
AND
LOCOMOTIO
N
1SM Teknik Langkawi, 2011

2.1 UNDERSTANDING
SUPPORT AND
LOCOMOTION IN
HUMANS AND
ANIMALS
2
SM Teknik Langkawi, 2011

The necessity for support and
locomotion in humans and animals
 Locomotion  the ability of animals to move
from place to place
 Humans and animals need to move because:
- to search for food
- To seek shelter
- To avoid or escape from predators and other
dangers
- To search for a mate to propagate the species
3

Skeleton
 Inner framework is made up of bones that are
joined together at the joints to form skeleton
 There are 5 major functions of skeleton:
1. Provides shape and support
2. Enables movement
3. Protects internal organs
4. Produce blood cells
5. Stores materials (ex: calcium & phosphate)
4

Types of skeleton
 There are 3 types of skeleton:
EXOSKELETON, ENDOSKELETON,
HYDROSTATIC SKELETON
1. Exoskeleton
- outer covering which is made up of rigid &
strong materials such as calcium or chitin
- The jointed external skeleton provides
locomotion and support to insects
- For molluscs(snail,oysters)their skeleton
consist of a hard SHELL of calcium, cover
and protect the soft body
6

2. Endoskeleton
- Is an internal skeleton comprising of many
component parts of cartilage or bones
- It protects internal organs from injury
- It maintains body shape, supporting soft
tissues, produce blood cells and stores
calcium and phosphorus
7

3. Hydrostatic skeleton
 internal watery fluids held under pressure
contained within confined spaces in the body
surrounded by the muscles.
 Provides support and locomotion to animals
such as earthworms and caterpillars
8

Human skeleton
 Consists of many bones joined together at the
joint.
 Can be divided into two parts:
(A) Axial Skeleton
(B) Appendicular Skeleton
9

A. Axial Skeleton
 Consists of following components:
(a) Skull
(b) Vertebral column
(c) Rib cage
10

1. Skull
 Consists of the cranium and the facial
skeleton
 The cranium:
- dome-shaped
- Formed from the fusion of sutures (immovable
joints which securely hold bones)
- Protects the brain, supports organs of special
senses
11

 Facial bones consists of:
- 2 eye sockets (protect the eyeballs)
- 2 nasal bones
- Upper jaw bone (maxilla) which is fused to the
base of the cranium
- Lower jaw bone (mandible) which is hinged to
the cranium movable and allows the mouth
to open and close while talking and eating
12

2. Vertebral Column
 Consists of 33 small vertebral bones/vertebrae
 Is known as the backbone or the spine
 Provides protection for the spinal cord
 Has processes (projection from a bone) for the
attachment of muscles
 Each vertebra differs in structures depending on
its function and position
 Intervertebral cartilage disc:
- Separates adjacent vertebrae
- Acts as a shock-absorbing cushion, reduces
friction & allows movement between adjacent
vertebrae
14

 The 33 vertebrae are made up of:
- 7 cervical (cervix=neck) vertebrae in the neck
region
- 12 thoracic vertebrae in the thorax region
- 5 lumbar vertebrae supporting the lower back
- 5 sacral vertebrae fused to form a single
sacrum
- 4 caudal vertebrae fused to form a single
coccyx
15

The typical vertebra
 Although vertebrae in different regions vary in
size, shape and details, they share certain
common physical characteristics
 The typical vertebra has these structures:
1) A centrum (body)
2) A neural arch (vertebral arc)
3) A neural canal (vertebral canal)
4) Transverse processes
17

/ Neural
canal
18

1) Centrum
- Is a solid piece of bone that can resist compression
2) Neural arch (vertebral arc)
- Arises from centrum
- Neural arc & centrum surround the neural canal
- Protects the spinal cord
3) Neural canal (vertebral canal)
- Is the large hole in the centre of the vertebra
- It is continuous with the neural canals of other
vertebrae
- Carries the spinal cord
19

4. Transverse processes
- Are the bony projections for the attachment of
ligaments and muscle tendons
- A short spine called the neural spine projects
out from the midpoint of the neural arch
20

Cervical vertebrae
 There are 3 types:
(a) The atlas – the first cervical vertebra
(b) The axis – the 2nd cervical vertebra
(c) The typical cervical vertebra
 Atlas and axis allow the head to nod and turn
 All cervical vertebrae have:
- 1 neural canal (the spinal cord passes trough
this hole)
- 2 vertebrarterial canals (the vertebral arteries
pass through these holes)
21

Atlas
 1st cervical vertebra
 Supports the head
 Is a ring-shaped bone with large superior facet
which articulate with the base of the skull (at
the occipital condyles) to allow for rocking
movements
 Its neural canal is very large
 Does not have centrum, transverse processes
and neural spine
22

Axis
 2nd cervical vertebra
 Has a centrum and transverse processes
 Its centrum extends upwards to form a tooth-
like process, called odontoid process
 The odontoid process fits into the lower part of
the neural canal of the atlas
 It allows atlas to turn about the odontoid
process
24

Thoracic Vertebrae
 A typical thoracic vertebra has:
- A heart-shaped centrum (body)
- A small circular neural canal
- A long neural spine which point downwards
- 2 long transverse processes
- Facets on both sides of the centrum and at the
end of transverse processes
25

Lumbar vertebrae
 Kidney-shaped, LARGEST vertebrae in
human backbone
 Support upper body
 Have a triangular spinal canal
 Have large broad transverse processes and a
short broad neural spine
 Have large superior facets
27

Sacrum
 Is a triangular bone formed by the fusion of
five sacral vertebrae
 Four transverse lines indicates the fusion of
the vertebrae
 On both sides of the transverse lines are
paired sacral foramina (openings)
29

Coccyx
 Is a triangular bone formed by the fusion of
four caudal vertebrae
 Fused to the sacrum
 Has no special function
31

3. Rib cage
 There are 12 pairs of ribs and all articulate
with the thoracic vertebrae of the backbone
 Among these 12 pairs:
a) 7 upper pairs directly join the sternum by
cartilage at the end of the ribs
b) Next 3 ribs(8th, 9th and 10th = false rib) attach
to the rib above by cartilage
c) The other 2 ribs (floating ribs) are not
connected to the sternum of the rib cage
above
32
SM Teknik Langkawi,
2011

34
 Functions of rib cage:
1. To protect vital organs such as the lungs and
the heart
2. For the attachment of the intercostal muscle
3. Provides the pumping mechanism required
for breathing

B. Appendicular skeleton
35
 Components of appendicular skeleton are:
1. The pectoral girdle
2. The pelvic girdle
3. The upper limbs
4. The lower limbs

1. The pectoral girdle
36
 Contains 2 bones:
- The clavicle or collar bone
- The scapula or shoulder blade
1. The clavicle
- Is a long, slender bone that is positioned
horizontally above the first rib
2. Scapula
- Large, flat, triangular bone situated in the
posterior of the thorax

2. Pelvic girdle
38
 Consists of two hip bones
 Provides a strong and stable support for the
vertebral column
 The hip bones are joined to each other at a
joint called the pubic symphysis

3. Upper limb
40
 Consists of humerus, ulna, radius, carpus,
metacarpus, and phalanges.
 Humerus
- is the longest and largest bone in the upper
limb.
- It articulates with the scapula at the shoulder
and with the ulna and the radius at the elbow

41
 The carpus(wrist) consists of 8 small bones
called carpals
 Metacarpus(palm) contains 5 bones called
metacarpals
 The phalanges are the bone of the fingers
 - 14bones, 2 in the thumb, other four fingers
have 3 phalanges

Lower limb
43
 Consists of femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal
and metatarsal
 Femur is the longest, heaviest and strongest
bone in the body
 Patella – kneecap which protects the knee
joint
 Tibia- bears the weight of the body
 Fibula – parallel to tibia and much more
smaller
 Tarsal- ankle of the foot consists of 6 bones
 Metatarsals – 5 bones

Chapter 2 locomotion and support

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