The document provides information on the human skeletal system including: - It describes the main types of skeletons in humans and animals - endoskeleton, exoskeleton, and hydrostatic skeleton. - It explains the functions of the skeletal system which include protection, support, movement, blood cell formation, and mineral storage. - It outlines the main bones that make up the axial skeleton (skull, vertebral column, rib cage) and appendicular skeleton (pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle, forelimb bones, hindlimb bones).

2. CONCEPT MAP OF CHAPTER 2
LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT
LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT IN
SUPPORT IN PLANTS
HUMANS & ANIMALS
TYPES OF Muscles, ligaments TERRESTRIAL
LOCOMOTION AQUATIC PLANTS
SKELETON & tendon PLANTS
Hydrostatic skeleton
Birds
Exoskeleton
Fish
Endoskeleton Grasshopper
Appendicular
Axial skeleton skeleton Earthworms

4. LEARNING
OUTCOMES
 To explain the necessity for support and
locomotion in humans and animals,
 To describe problems that could be faced by
humans and animals in support and
locomotion,
 To explain how problems in support and
locomotion are overcome in humans and
animals,
 To name the bones that make up the axial
skeleton and appendicular skeleton of the
human body

5. The Necessity for Support &
Locomotion in Humans & Animals
WHY DO HUMANS & ANIMALS
NEED SUPPORT?
1. To find the food
2. To find partner for mating
3. To protect/escape from their
predator
4. To shelter from bad environment

6. The Necessity for Support &
Locomotion in Humans & Animals
 Without support, animals & humans
would not be able to maintain their body
shape  their body collapse under the
weight of their own tissues.
 Support are provided by some form of
skeleton.
 Hydrostatic skeleton
 Exoskeleton
 endoskeleton

7. HYDROSTATIC
SKELETON
 A fluid-filled internal body cavity in
which the fluid is held under pressure 
maintaining the body shape & providing
support for internal organ
 The cavity is surrounded by muscles
arranged in layers.
 The body shape of the animal changes as
these muscles contract & relax.

8.  The animals are soft & flexible, the hydrostatic fluid
does protect body parts by acting as a shock
absorber.
 Examples : earthworm, jellyfish, leech & caterpillar.

9. EXOSKELETON
 A rigid outer covering usually made up
of protein, chitins &/@ calcium salt.
 Insects – the cuticle (covered with wax
to prevent water loss from the body),
cover the body’s surface.
 The exoskeleton is jointed / hinged =
certain points of the skeleton are flexible
& can bend  enabling the movement.

10.  Exoskeleton restrict the growth of animals 
the exoskeleton must be shed from time to time
in order for the animal to grow. (ecdysis)
 Also found in the shells of molluscs & the bony
plates of tortoises.
 Examples : insects, crabs, lobsters, tortoise

12. ENDOSKELETON
 Found in the bodies of all vertebrates including
fish, amphibians & birds.
 Consist of hard skeleton of bones & cartilage
found inside the body – made up of calcium &
phosphate.
 Works with the muscular system to perform
movement & locomotion. It support the body &
protects the organs.

14. The Necessity for Support &
Locomotion in Humans & Animals
 The functions of skeleton :
 Provide shape & support
 Enables movement (locomotion)
 Protects internal organs
 Stores calcium & phosphate ions
 Produces blood cells
 A firm base for the attachment of
muscles

15. The Necessity for Support &
Locomotion in Humans & Animals
Problems that could be faced by humans
and animals in support and locomotion,
 gravitational force, friction & resistance when moving
around
 Aspect need to be considered when describing the
locomotion of an animal :-
 Stability – when it moves, it is temporarily unstable, but
its stability will be restored when it stops.
 Support – must have enough support from its body’s
skeleton
 Propulsion – must be propelled in order to move

16. HOW TO OVERCOME THE
PROBLEMS?
 RESISTANCE & FRICTION – by
streamlining their bodies.
 GRAVITATIONAL FORCE – most animals
have their own supporting structures (fins –
fishes, wings – birds & strong limbs – tetrapods
& humans)  provide the propulsive force to
overcome the problem

17.  The skeletal system together with its
muscles are designed specially to overcome
the problems associated with support &
locomotion of humans & animals.
 To initiate locomotion, the force required
is generated by contraction of muscles,
whereas the movement is transmitted by
the skeleton.

20. THE HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM
 The adult human skeleton consist of 206 bones.
 Divided into two main parts : the axial skeleton &
the appendicular skeleton.
 The axial skeleton : made up of the bones that
form the vertical axis of the body.
 It supports & protects the organs of the head,
neck & trunk. (skull, vertebral column, rib cage)

21.  The appendicular skeleton : made up of the
bones that are attached to the axial
skeleton.
 Include bones of the limbs, the pectoral
girdle & the pelvic girdle.

22. FUNCTION OF THE SKELETON
 PROTECTION – the skull protects the brain,
the vertebral column protects the spinal cord &
the rib cage protects internal organs such as the
heart.
 SUPPORT – act as a framework to support the
soft body parts, to maintain the upright position
& to keep the body stable.

23. FUNCTION OF THE SKELETON
 MOVEMENT – bones interact with the
skeletal muscle.
 BLOOD CELL FORMATION – most of the
blood cells are formed in the bone marrow of
the long bones.
 MINERAL STORAGE – bones act as a
reservoir for calcium & phosphorus.

24. SKELETAL SYSTEM
HUMAN SKELETON
AXIAL SKELETON
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
SKULL VERTEBRAL COLUMN RIB CAGE PECTORAL GIRDLE
PELVIC GIRDLE
CERVICAL
THORACIC FORELIMB BONES
LUMBAR HINDLIMB BONES
SACRUM
COCCYX

26. THE SKULL
 Made up of 8 cranial bones & 14 facial bones
including the upper jaw & the lower jaw.
 The facial bones also provide support &
protect the entrances to the respiratory
system.

27. SKULL
PARTS FUNCTIONS
8 Cranial bones  Are fused to form immovable joints called sutures.
 Protect the brain & the sensory organs.
Eye sockets  to protect the eye ball.
Nasal bones  to support nose tissues
Ear holes  to protect inner part of ears
Maxilla (upper jaw)  to support upper teeth
Mandible (lower jaw)  to support lower teeth, to enable eating & talking.

28. VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 Known as the spine/ backbone.
 Extends from the base of the skull to the pelvic
girdle.
 Made up of 33 vertebrae separated from each other
by discs of cartilage (intervertebral discs) which
absorb shocks & serve as flex point.
 This S-shaped column supports & balances the body
in a vertical plane & protects the spinal cord,
supports the skull & provides a base for the
attachment of muscles to the back.

29. VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 The vertebrae differ in structure & function in
different regions of the vertebral column.
 A vertebra typically consists of a main body (the
centrum), a neural arch & transverse processes.

30. VERTEBRAL COLUMN

31. VERTEBRAL COLUMN
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
NEURAL SPINE Provides surface for attachment of
ligaments & muscles.
TRANSVERSE Provides surface for attachment of
PROCESS ligaments & muscles.
NEURAL ARCH/ Protects the spinal cord.
VERTEBRAL
FORAMEN
CENTRUM Provides support & absorbs shocks.
NEURAL CANAL Provides the passage of nerves from
the spinal cord.
ARTICULATING Provides surface which articulates
SURFACE with the next vertebra.

32. TYPES OF VERTEBRAE
TYPE OF POSITION NUMBER OF MAIN CHARACTER
VERTEBRAE VERTEBRAE
Cervical Below the 7  1st one – atlas
Vertebra skull vertebra
 2nd – axis
vertebrae
 Large neural
canal/vertebral
foramen
 Short neural spine
 Flat centrum
 Short transverse
processes
 Has a pair of
vertebrarterial
canals

33. CERVICAL VERTEBRA

36. THORACIC VERTEBRA
TYPE OF POSITION NUMBER OF MAIN CHARACTER
VERTEBRAE VERTEBRAE
Thoracic Thorax 12  Neural canal/
Vertebra vertebral foramen
is smaller than
cervical
vertebra’s
 Long neural spine/
spinous processes
(for attachment of
back muscle)
 Thick & big
centrum
 Short transverse

37. THORACIC VERTEBRA (12)

39. LUMBAR VERTEBRA
TYPE OF POSITION NUMBER OF MAIN CHARACTER
VERTEBRAE VERTEBRAE
Lumbar Waist 5  small neural
Vertebra canal/
vertebral foramen
 short neural spine
 thick & big
centrum
 long transverse
processes for
muscle attachment

40. LUMBAR VERTEBRA

41. SACRUM & COCCYX
TYPE OF POSITION NUMBER OF MAIN CHARACTER
VERTEBRAE VERTEBRAE
Sacrum Pelvic 5 fused  Vertebrae fused to
region each other
 Has four pairs of
openings
Triangular shape
Coccyx Caudal 4 fused  Bones fused to
region each other forming a
triangular shape
which tapers at one
end

42. SACRUM & COCCYX

44. THE STERNUM & RIBS
 The rib cage consists
of 12 pairs of ribs
with the thoracic
vertebrae at the back
portion of the body &
join to the sternum
in the front portion.
 Movement of the rib
cage are brought
about by intercostal
muscles between the
ribs.

45. THE STERNUM & RIBS
 The sternum &
ribs enclose &
protect the
internal organs
(the lungs &
heart) & play an
important role
in breathing.

48. PECTORAL GIRDLE
 Consist of scapula &
clavicle.
 Links the upper limbs
bones to the axial
skeleton.
 The scapula : bound by
muscles to the back of
the thorax. It is a flat,
triangular bone which
provides a surface for
the attachment of
muscles.

49.  The clavicle : a
rod-shaped bone placed
horizontally above the
scapula.
 It links the scapula
to the sternum. It
limits the movements
of the scapula.

51. PELVIC GIRDLE
 Consists of 6 fused
bones – support the
weight of the body from
the vertebral column.
 Also protect the
internal organs –
urinary bladder &
reproductive organs.
 Made up of two halves,
each consists of 3 bones
(ilium, pubis & ischium)

52. PELVIC GIRDLE
 The pelvic girdle is
attached to the
sacrum of the
vertebral column.
 The asetabulum /
socket for femur
articulates with
each side of the
pelvic girdle at the
hip joint.

54. FORELIMB BONES
 Consists of humerus,
radius & ulna.
 The Humerus :
 The long bones of the
upper arm
 Rounded head end fits
into an open socket of
the scapula  forming a
ball-and-socket joint
(allow movement in all
planes)

55.  The posterior end of
the humerus forms a
hinge joint with the
ulna with the ulna-
radius bones, allowing
movement in one plane
only.
 The radius & ulna :
 The bones on the forearm
in which the ulna is
longer than the radius.
 It has a notch at its
upper end which
articulates the humerus
at the elbow.

56.  The carpals :
 The bones that form
the wrist.
 Consists of 8 small
bones
 The metacarpals :
 The rod-shaped ones
that form the palm.
 The phalanges :
 The bones that form
the fingers.

57. HINDLIMB

BONES tibia
Consists of femur,
& fibula.
 The femur :
 The longest, strongest &
heaviest bone in the body.
 Support the tight.
 Play an important role in
maintaining the body’s
upright position & in
locomotion as it is
attached to massive
muscles.
 The head of femur fits into
the pelvic girdle to form a
joint.
 Other end, articulates with
the tibia & fibula at the
knee.

58.  The tibia & fibula :
 The bones of the lower
leg.
 Support the shank.
 Tibia larger than
fibula & is the weight-
bearing bone of the
leg.
 Fibula is a long & thin
bone – not bear any
load  more important
for attachment of
muscles than for
support.
 Articulate with the
tarsals of the ankle.

59.  The tarsals :
 The 7 bones that form the
ankle.
 The metatarsals :
 The 5 rod-shaped bones
that form the foot.
 The phalanges :
 The bones that form the
toes.
 The patella/kneecap :
 A small rounded,
movable bone.
 Protect the knee joint.