This chapter discusses a literature review on developing learner autonomy through strategy training. It defines learner autonomy as taking charge of one's own learning and acting independently in learning situations. The chapter outlines two levels of learner autonomy: proactive autonomy where learners plan, monitor, and assess their learning, and reactive autonomy where learners can manage resources autonomously when given direction. It also describes The Autonomous Learner Model and characteristics of autonomous learners. The chapter then discusses implementing learner autonomy through learning contracts, self-access centers, and learner training. It defines strategy training and categories of learning strategies, and examines theoretical approaches to learning like behaviorism, cognitivism, and humanism that influence second language acquisition.

1. Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.0 Introduction
This chapter will discuss on the review of literature pertaining to the theory and previous
researches on developing learners’ autonomy through strategy training. In addition, it will also
look in depth on the learners’ autonomy in the Malaysia context. There has been various change
in education that somewhat requires students’ to finally take charge of their own learning and not
abundantly rely on the teachers. This means that teachers need to pay great attention to
approaches that can foster learner autonomy.
2.1 Learner Autonomy
Learner autonomy carries multiple meaning with several interpretations depending on the
situation thus it is a difficult concept to define (Chan, 2000). Moreover the most common
definition for learner autonomy is defined by Holec (1981) which is “to take charge of one’s own
learning and the ability to act in the learning situation”.
Littlewood (1999) had categorized learner autonomy into two levels which is proactive
autonomy where the learners are capable of planning, monitoring and accessing their learning
and the second level is called reactive autonomy where it does not generate its own direction,
only when the direction is given will the learners be able to manage their resource autonomously
and achieving their goal.
2.1.1 The Autonomous Learner Model (ALM)
George T. Betts and Jolene K. Kercher (1991) had developed The Autonomous Learner
Model (ALM) which was designed for gifted and talented students. Nevertheless, it can also be
used in any standard classroom due to its flexible design.
The five parts of the model are:
1. Orientation
2. Individual Development
3. Enrichment

2. 4. Seminars
5. In-depths Study
2.1.2 Characteristic of Autonomous Learners
2.1.3 Learner Autonomy in Language Learning
2.2 Implementing Learner Autonomy
2.2.1 Learning Contracts
According to learningandteaching.info.com, the agreement between a teacher and
a learner are called learning contracts. It is a form of assessment which functions as a useful tool
for both parties which will assist on identifying whether the planned piece of work meets the
requirement of the course.
2.2.2 Self- Access Centres
According to the Malaysian Ministry of Education (MMoE 2001), self- access is a
system that enables the learners to learn at their own pace using a systematic learning materials
and amenities.
2.2.3 Learner Training
McCarthy (1998) states that teaching only illustrates to someone that something is
possible whereas learning is discovering that something is possible. Additionally, improving the
effectiveness of learning is the main aim of learner training and it should be part of the learning
how to learn course. Trim (1998:3) posited:
"No school, or even university, can provide its pupils with all the knowledge and the skills they
will need in their active adult lives. It is more important for a young person to have an
understanding of himself or herself, an awareness of the environment and its workings, and to
have learned how to think and how to learn".

3. 2.3 Strategy Training
Gurnam Kaur (2000), stated in his study of ‘Investigating Learner Autonomy through
Strategy Training in the ESL Classroom’ that strategy training is where learners are introduced to
numerous language learning strategies during the lesson and it is explained how, when and why
these strategies aids the learning process.
2.3.1 Goals of Strategy Training
According to Cohen (2003), strategies can be classified into two categories either
language learning or language use strategies. It includes strategies to memorize and manipulate
the language, metacognitive strategies to manage and supervise strategy use, affective strategies
to measure reactions and lowering anxieties, and social strategies to enhance learning and seek
interaction with native speakers.
2.3.2 Strategy Training Framework
2.3.3 Language Learning Strategies
2.4 Theoretical Approaches to Learning and their Influence on Second Language
Acquisition
2.4.1 Behaviorist Approach
2.4.2 Cognitive Approach
2.4.3 Humanistic Approach
2.5 Related Studies Carried Out in Malaysia