This document outlines the syllabus for the Department of Biology at SMT. C.H.M. College. It details the question paper pattern, which includes short answer questions, long answer questions, and MCQs. The syllabus then covers various topics related to reproduction in lower and higher plants, including asexual reproduction methods, sexual reproduction, pollination types and mechanisms, outbreeding devices to promote cross-pollination, double fertilization and embryo development. Specific plant structures and processes such as the anther, microsporogenesis and megasporogenesis are also defined.

1. Department of Biology
SMT. C.H.M COLLEGE
WELCOMES

2. SYLLABUS
SMT. CHANDIBAI HIMATHMALMANSUKHANI COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

3. QUESTION PAPER PATTERN
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
Section A (18 marks)
Q.No 1 MCQ 10 questions
Q.No. 2 Very Short Answer (one sentence)
Section B (16 marks)
Q.No 3 to 14 Short Answer
Section C (24 marks)
Q.No 15 to 26 Short Answer
Section D (12 marks)
Q.No. 27 to 31 Long Answer
(10 questions – 10 marks)
(8 questions – 8 marks)
(Any 8 out of 10, 2 marks each)
(Any 8 out of 12, 3 marks each)
(Any 3 out of 5, 4 marks each)

4. Reproduction
in
Lower & higher Plants

5. 1.1 Asexual Reproduction
Fragmentation, Budding, Spore formation
Vegetative reproduction
(Cutting/Budding/Grafting/Tissue culture)
Scope & Limitations
1.2 Sexual Reproduction
Structure of anther, T.S of anther
Structure of microspore
1.3 Microsporogenesis
Development of male gametophyte
1.4 Structure of Anatropus ovule
1.5 Megasporogenesis
Development of female gametophyte
1.6 Pollination
Autogamy, Geitonogamy, Xenogamy
Agencies of pollination
Biotic
Abiotic
Wind
Water
Insects
Birds
Bats
1.7 Outbreeding devices
Heterostyly
Unisexuality
Dichogamy
Prepotency
Herkogamy
Self incompatability
Protandry
Protogyny
1.8 Pollen Pistil interaction
1.9 Double fertilization
1.10 Development of Endosperm
Artificial hybridization
Significance

6. 1.11 Development of Embryo 1.12 Seed & Fruit Development
1.13 Apomixis 1.14 Parthenocarpy
1.15 Polyembryony
Cellular Helobial
Nuclear
Non reccurent apomixis
Adventive embryony
Reccurent apomixis
Significance
Scope & Limitations

7. Introduction
Production of young one of its own kind is reproduction.
Necessary for continuation of species & maintains continuity of life.
Methods of Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
Gametes are not involved
Uniparental
No Genetic Variation
Gametes are involved
Biparental
Genetic Variation is seen

8. 1.1 Asexual Reproduction
Fragmentation Budding Spore formation
Multicellular organisms
break into fragments,
each fragment grow into
new organisms.
Produces one or more
outgrowth (buds), on
separation form new
organisms
Flagellated motile
zoospores formed grow
independently into new
organisms.
Eg. Spirogyra Eg. Yeast Eg. Chlamydomonas
Other methods includes Binary fisssion (Amoeba), Conidia formation
(Penicilium), Gemmule formation (Sponges)

9. Vegetative Methods in Plants
(Vegetative Propogation)

10. Vegetative methods (Natural)
1. Root tubers eg Sweet Potato
•Roots store plenty of food material,
become swollen & are called as tubers.
•They have adventitious buds on the surface which sprouts
under favorable conditions and produces leafy shoots and
roots.
•In Sweet Potato these roots are irregularly swollen,
cylindrical, thick, tapering towards both ends, dark blackish
red in colour.

11. 2. Stem tubers eg Potato
Vegetative methods
•A stem tuber has many notches called as eyes, which is
actually a node consisting of one or more small axillary
buds and reduced scale leaves.
•The basal or underground stem
produces axillary or extra axillary
underground branches.
•These branches are swollen due to storage of starchy
food and are called as stem tubers.

12. 3. Runners eg Cynadon
Vegetative methods
•It is a slender, prostrate sub aerial
branch, developed from lower axillary
bud.
•It is thin, elongated and cylindrical wire like structure
having internodes.
•Shoots are produced from upper side of the node, which
produces new plant after detachment.

13. 4. Leaf eg Bryophyllum
•Leaf is succulent with crenate margin, Epiphyllous buds
are present in each notch at the tip of the lateral veins.
Vegetative methods
•These buds sprout to form leafy shoots and adventitious
roots which develops into individual plants.

14. •Cutting
Vegetative methods (Artificial)
•Cuttings are pieces of plants which
are able to develop into new plants
•It must have primary meristem, this is the most
convenient and cheap method.
•Soft terminal leafy part is cut into pieces (10-15cms)
•Cutting should be vigorous, disease free & healthy with
few internodes and few dormant buds.
•Upper end of the cutting is circular, the lower end has
slanting cut.
Stem Cutting

15. •Leaves are removed to avoid
transpiration.
•Basal end is treated with IAA, IBA or
NAA for early initiation of root.
•Planting is done in wet fertile soil.
Root cutting
•Root cutting is about 3-10 cms. in length.
Leaf cutting
•Lamina or Petiole is used in leaf cutting.
It is placed vertically in soil and new
plants are obtained.
Stem Cutting

16. •Single bud with bark is
grafted on stock.
•A ‘T’ or ‘I’ shaped incision
is made.
•Bark is raised on margins
and scion is inserted.
•Place of union is tied firmly and covered with grafting
wax.
Budding (a sort of grafting)

17. •Rooted plant -- Stock
(root stock/under stock)
•Grafted plant -- Scion
(inserted on the stock)
•Wild variety is used as stock, scion has desired characters.
•Auxins are applied to promote early union of vascular
tissues.
Grafting

18. •Tongue / Whip grafting
•Diameter of stock & scion are same.
•Slanting cut to both the ends (5-8 cms)
•Notch formed in stock
•Scion cut in the chisel manner, inserted
stocks are tied firmly
•Wedge / Cleft grafting
•Diameter of stock & scion are same.
•Hollow ‘V’ shaped notch and solid ‘V’
into scion.
•Scion is inserted and tied firmly and
sealed.
Additional Reading

19. •Crown grafting
•Stock is thicker many times than
scion.
•Many ‘V’ shaped notches are formed
on stock.
•Basal ends of scion are given wedge
shaped cut and inserted.
•Exposed surface is covered by
grafting wax.
Additional Reading

20. • Approach / Inarching
•Slice of wood / bark is cut from both
plants at same level (2.5– 5.0).
•Cut surface are brought together, pressed
and tied by grafting tape and wax.
•Union takes 2 to 3 months. Stock is cut
above the graft and scion is cut below the
graft. thus scion stands on stock
Additional Reading

21. Sexual
ReproductionAphimix
is

23. Sexual Reproduction/Aphimixis
Flower is the highly
modified and condensed
reproductive shoot.
Natural cluster or
aggregation of flowers on
an axis is called as
inflorescence.

25. Parts of Typical Flower
Stalk of flower (if absent flower is called sessile or
else pedicellate)
Highly condensed, slightly enlarged axis with nodes & very
small internodes.
•Pedicel
•Thalamus
Essential Whorls Accessory Whorls
Androecium & Gynoecium Calyx & Corolla

26. Parts of Typical Flower
• Members are stamens
(Anther, Connective &
Filament)
• Members are carpels
(Stigma, Style & Ovary)
Essential Whorls
Androecium Gynoecium/Pistil
• It is male sexual whorl. • It is female sexual whorl.
• Produces pollen grains in
anther which produces
male gametes.
• Ovary consists of ovules,
which produces female
gametes

27. Members are called sepals
(Gamosepalous – sepals are united
Polysepalous – sepals are free)
Parts of Typical Flower
Accessory Whorls
Calyx Corolla
Members are called petals
(Gamopetalous – petals are united
Polypetalous – petals are free)
Photosynthetic & protective
in function.
Petals are brightly coloured,
mainly for attraction of
insects for pollination.

28. Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma.
Pollination
Types of Pollination
Self pollination/Autogamy
•Transfer of pollen grain
from anther of one flower
to the stigma of same
flower is self pollination /
autogamy.
Cross pollination Allogamy
Cross pollination/Allogamy
is transfer of pollen grain
from anther of one flower
to the stigma of different
flower of a different plant.

29. Geitonogamy
It is transfer of pollen
grains from anther of one
flower to the stigma of
another flower on the same
plant
Pollination
Types of Pollination
Self pollination/Autogamy

30. Merits
•Sure method.
•Need no external agents.
•Most economical
(modifications of attractive
petals, fragrance, nectar is not
required).
•Least wastage of pollen
grains.
•Improved variety can be
propagated with preservation
of desired characters.
•Genetic stability is
maintained.
•Pure lines can be produced.
Demerits
•No chance of forming
improved varieties.
•Neither undesired characters
can be eliminated, nor desired
characters can be introduced
•Self pollinations for
generation weakens progeny.
(susceptible to diseases),
•Continued self pollinations
may result in less number of
seeds, less viability, less
adaptability.
•Does not favor variations &
evolution.

31. Transfer of pollen grain
from anther of a flower to
stigma of another flower of
same species then the
pollination is termed as
xenogamy
Pollination
Types of Cross Pollination/Allogamy
Transfer of pollen grains
from anther of one flower
to stigma of another flower
of another plant of
different variety is called
hybridization
Xenogamy Hybridization

32. Genetic recombination &
variations are possible.
Undesired characters can be
eliminated, desired characters
can be introduced.
Improved varieties can be
produced by hybridization.
Offsprings are strong, disease
resistant and better adapted to
climatic conditions..
Offsprings show better vigour
and vitality and favours
evolution.
Depends on external agents
hence chances of failure are
more.
Not an economical method as
lot of energy is wasted.
Large number of pollen grains
are wasted.
Undesirable characters may be
introduced.
Genetic purity cannot be
maintained.
Merits Demerits

33. Pollinating Agencies
Abiotic Biotic

34. Additional Reading

35. Abiotic
Pollinating
Agencies

36. WIND

37. •Absence of nectar.
•Flowers are small &
inconspicuous.
•Absence of bright color &
fragrance.
•Petals are small, green or
highly reduced.
•Unisexual flowers are
situated at the higher level.
Anemophily (Wind) – Floral adaptations (Eg. Jowar)
•Pollen grains are smooth walled & light in weight.
•Stamens are with long filaments & versatile anthers.
•Pollen grains are produced in extremely large numbers.
•Long style &feathery stigma to trap the pollen grains.

38. Hazel staminate flowers
(stamens only)
Hazel carpellate flower
(carpels only)
Hazel staminate flowers
(stamens only)
Hazel carpellate flower
(carpels only)

40. •Absence of nectar.
•Flowers are small, inconspicuous usually unisexual.
•Absence of bright color and fragrance.
•Floral parts are unwettable.
•In submerged female plants pollen grains have specific
gravity equal or slightly greater than water so that it reaches
the female flower.
•In plants with floating female flowers the pollen grains
have specific gravity less than water so that they float &
reach female flower.
Hydrophily – Floral adaptations (Eg. Ceratophyllum, Vallisneria)
Changes in the specific gravity are brought about by
formation of starch grains.

41. Hydrophily (Water) – Floral adaptations
Hypohydrophily
(below the surface of water)
Epihydrophily
(above the surface of water)
•Pollen grains are needle like
lacking exine.
•They bear same specific
gravity as that of water
hence they float below the
surface.
•On contact with stigma
they coil around and get
deposited.
•Male & female flowers are
separate, under the water.
•At maturity male flowers
detach & float.
•Female flowers have a long
coiled pedicel which uncoils,
& reaches the surface.
•Male flowers surround the
female flowers, deposit the
pollen.
•Eg. Ceratophyllum •Eg. Vallisneria

42. Hydrophily
Hypohydrophily Epihydrophily
Eg. Ceratophyllum Eg. Vallisneria

43. Biotic Agencies

44. Entomophily
Eg. Bees, Moths

46. •Presence of nectar.
•Flowers are large & attractive.
•Presence of bright colored &
fragrant floral parts.
•Flowers are situated at the higher
level.
Entomophily (insect) – Floral Adaptations Eg.: Rose
•Pollen grains are spiny, stigma has rough & sticky surface.
•Stamens are with long filaments and versatile anthers.
•In certain cases lever mechanism is employed.

47. Lever Mechanism Eg. Salvia
•In Salvia flower is bisexual &
protandrous.
•Two stamens have bifurcated, long
connective.
•Upper part contains fertile anther
lobe & lower part has sterile anther
lobe.
•An insect on entry pushes the
lower sterile lobe, as a result fertile
lobe come in contact & pollen is
dusted.
•When the same insect visits female flower, the pollen
grains are picked up by the receptive stigma.

49. Floral Adaptations for Ornithophily. Eg.:Bignonia
•Corolla is tubular, funnel shaped and brightly coloured.
•Flowers are without fragrance.
•Flowers produce large amount of sugary nectar.
•Pollen grains have sticky surface.
•Flowers are large with thick and fleshy floral parts.

50. Stamen
Anther
Filament
Stigma Carpel
Style
Ovary
Anther
Pollen tube
Germinated pollen grain (n)
(male gametophyte)
Ovary
Ovule
Embryo sac (n)
(female gametophyte)
Egg (n)
Sperm (n)
Zygote
(2n)
Seed
Seed
Embryo (2n)
(sporophyte)
Simple fruit
Germinating
seed
Mature sporophyte
plant (2n)
(b) Simplified angiosperm life cycle
Key
Receptacle
Sepal
Petal
(a) Structure of an idealized flower
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
FERTILIZATION
Assignment I -- Complete the labels

53. Unisexuality – Eg. Papaya.
•Other pollen grains germinate rapidly as compared to the
own pollen grains.
•Plant bears either male/female flowers (dioecism).
Prepotency
Contrivances for Cross pollination
Self incompatability/Self Sterililty
•It is a genetic mechanism due to which the germination of
pollen grain on stigma of same flower is inhibited.

54. Heterostyly
•Flowers are of 2 to 3 types/forms
Contrivances for Cross pollination
•Stigmas & Anthers are placed at different levels
•Pollen produced from anthers pollinate stigmas at same
level.
Herkogamy
•Natural physical barrier is present to avoid pollen stigma
contact.
•Pentangular stigma is positioned above the level of
anthers.

55. Contrivances for Cross pollination
•Flowers are bisexual but anthers/stigmas mature at
different times. It is of two types;
•Androecium matures
earlier than gynoecium
Dichogamy
Protandry Protogyny
•Gynoecium matures earlier
than androecium

57. Anther

58. Structure of Anther & Microsporogenesis
•Androecium is the male
reproductive whorl, the
members are called as
stamens.
•Anther can be monothecous or dithecous, basifixed,
dorsifixed or versatile according to the type of pollination.
•Each stamen is differentiated into filament (stalk),
connective & anther.

59. •Internally anther consists
of Pollen Chambers
(Microsporangia) & Anther wall
T.S. of Anther & Microsporogenesis
•It is four layered namely;
Epidermis, Endothecium,
Middle layers & Tapetum
•Epidermis is the outermost
layer, protective in function.
Anther wall

60. •Middle layers are 1 to 3 layers of parenchyma cells, they
degenerate during development.
T.S. of Anther & Microsporogenesis
Anther wall
•Tapetum, innermost layer surrounds sporogenous tissue, it
provides nourishment to the developing pollen tetrads &
forms sporopollenin (component of exine).
•Endothecium shows thickening
in the shallow groove between
the microsporangia, its
hygroscopic nature helps in
dehiscence of anther, dispersal
of pollen grains.

61. Pollen sacs (microsporangia)
T.S. of Anther & Microsporogenesis
•Microsporangium consists
of mass of diploid
sporogenous cells which
undergo mitosis to form
microspore mother cells,
which undergoes meiosis to
form four haploid
microspores.

62. Assignment II -- Label the parts

63. •Microspore is uninucleate, unicellular, spherical/oval
structure, covered by sporoderm (exine & intine).
•Exine is unequally thickened & spiny, made up of
sporopollenin with germ pores (1 to 3).
•Structure of Pollen grain
•Intine is thin, smooth made up of cellulose and pectin.
Spine
Germ Pore

64. •Internally it shows 2 cells
•Structure of Pollen grain
•Vegetative cell is with large
vacuole, cytoplasm, nucleus
and reserve food.
Vegetative cell
Generative cell
•In the cytoplasm of vegetative cell is freely suspended
generative cell which lacks definite cell wall but has large
nucleus, thin cytoplasm and lacks reserve food.
•Pollen grain in this two celled stage is released.

65. •After pollination on stigma, this two celled
microspore undergoes further development.
•Pollen grain after pollination
•It absorbs the stigmatic secretion and thus
increases the volume of cytoplasm, creating
pressure on the intine which comes out
through one of the germ pore.
•Vegetative nucleus is followed by the 2
male gametes formed by the generative
nucleus in to the pollen tube.
•Such a structure is termed as male
gametophyte.
•Germination of pollen grain

66. •In due course of time the tube nucleus
degenerates & the pollen tube continues to
grow due to the chemical stimulus, thus
the gametes are carried to the ovules inside
the ovary which contains female
gametophyte with female gamete for
fertilization.
•Germination of pollen grain

68. •Structure of Anatropus ovule & Megasporogenesis
•Female gametophyte is formed in the
ovule present in the ovary.
•L.S of Anatropus ovule
•Ovule is bitegmic (2 integuments) &
anatropus (stalked in angiosperms), stalk is
called Funicle..
•Towards the base a small opening
called micropyle is seen, opposite end is
called chalaza.

69. •One of the diploid nucellar cells behaves as
a megaspore mother cell/Archesporial cell.
•L.S of Anatropus ovule
•Megaspore mother cell undergoes
meiosis forming linear tetrad of
haploid megaspores.
•Internally it is filled with nucellus (diploid
parenchyma cells).
•The basal/chalazal remains
functional & forms 8 nucleated 7
celled stage called as embryo sac
(female gametophyte).
•Development of Female Gametophyte (Embryo sac)

70. •Embryo sac is made up of
•Development of Female Gametophyte (Embryo sac)
2 polar nuclei (at centre)
Egg apparatus (2 synergids
surrounding egg cell towards
micropyle).
3 antipodals (towards chalaza)

71. FERTILIZATION

72. •The sugary secretion of stigma stimulates germination of
pollen grain.
•Fertilization
•The pollen tube passes through stigma, style, ovary, finally
enters the embryo sac ,releases the 2 male gametes
(porogamy).
•Before the entry of male gametes the 2 polar nuclei fuse
to form a single diploid Secondary nucleus – first fusion.

73. Porogamy : pollen tube enters through micropyle
Mesogamy:pollen tube enters by piercing integuments
Chalazogamy: pollen tube enters through chalaza
•The remaining male gamete fuses with the diploid
secondary nucleus to form triploid primary endosperm
nucleus (PEN) – 2nd fertilization & 3rd fusion.
(Double fertilization & Triple Fusion)
•A male gamete fertilizes
the egg forming diploid
zygote – first fertilization &
2nd fusion
•Fertilization

74. Assignment III -- Label the parts
Assignment IV -- Distinguish between

75. Assignment V -- Complete the labels
Assignment VI -- Give an example with following types of Ovules.

76. POST FERTILIZATION
CHANGES

77. • Diploid zygote forms a wall around it & is
called as Oospore.
• Oospore divides transversely to form large
basal cell towards micropyle & small apical
cell towards chalaza.
• This two celled embryo is now called as
proembryo.
Formation of Embryo
Basal cell
Apical cell
Proembryo
Oospore
• Basal cell divides transversely to
form row of suspensor.

78. • Apical cell undergoes a
transverse & two vertical divisions
at right angles to form octant
stage.
• Octant cells undergo unequal
periclinical divisions to form spherical
mass of cells.
Formation of Embryo

79. • This spherical mass becomes heart shaped, horseshoe
shaped & finally gets differentiated into embryonal axis
(plumule, radicle) & cotyledons
Formation of Embryo

81. Outer layer gives rise to dermatogens forming epidermis & inner layer
forms embryonal mass (procambium and ground meristem).which
further forms embryonal axis with radicle, plumule and 2 cotyledons.
Additional Reading

82. Endosperm formation

83. Development of Endosperm
•Endosperm is a nutritive,
post-fertilization tissue
formed from triploid PEN.
•. Depending on the mode
of development it is of
three types namely; Nuclear,
Helobial & Cellular.
Nuclear
Helobial
Cellular

84. Due to free nuclear
division of PEN
large number of
nuclei are suspended
in the common
cytoplasm of
embryo sac , Later
on wall formation
takes place in
centripetal manner
to form cellular
mass.
PEN undergoes
nuclear division
followed
immediately by
cytokinesis
hence
endosperm is
cellular right
from the
beginning.
Development of Endosperm
Nuclear Helobial
Cellular
PEN undergoes
nuclear division
followed by wall
formation, as a
result the central
cell is divided into
large micropylar
& small chalazal
chamber. Further
development
occurs in the form
of nuclear type

85. Formation of FRUIT & SEED
•Sepals, Petals, Stamens,
Stigma & Style fall off, ovary
changes in to fruit & ovules
changes to seed.
•Ovary wall forms pericarp,
which may or may not be
differentiated into epicarp,
mesocarp & endocarp.
•With the development of embryo & endosperm ovary
enlarges in size.

86. •Ovule enlarges in size,
outer integument becomes
thick & hard outer seed coat
called testa, inner
integument changes in to
thin tegmen.
•Thus the small, soft succulent ovule becomes dry & hard
seed.
•Initially pericarp is green, but turns orange, red, purple or
yellow on ripening.
Formation of FRUIT & SEED

87. •Some of the nucellar cells near the embryo sac divide &
protrude in to the embryo sac & develop into embryo’s.
•In such species an ovule contains many embryo’s, this is
called polyembryony.
POLYEMBRYONY
PARTHENOCARPY
•Fruits developed without fertilization are called
parthenoarpic fruits. Eg. Banana
•It can be induced by applying growth hormones.
Gibberellins.
•Seeds produced without fertilization are called apomictic
seeds. (apomixis -- asexual reproduction)
•Diploid Egg cell is formed without reduction division
developing into an embryo without fertilization.
APOMICTIC SEEDS

89. Evaluation

90. 1. Which of the following types require pollination but
result is genetically similar to autogamy?.
a) Geitonogamy
b) Xenogamy
c) Apogamy
d) Cleistogamy
2. Find the odd one
a) Nucellus
b) Embryo sac
c) Micropyle
d) pollen grain

91. 6. Insect pollinated flowers usually posses ………….
a) Sticky pollengrains with rough surface
b) Large quantities of pollen grains
c) Dry pollen with smooth surface
d) Light coloured pollen
3. If the diploid number in a flowering plant is 12, then
which one of the following will have 6 chromosomes?.
a) Endosperm
b) Leaf cells
c) Cotyledons
d) Synergids

92. 4. In which type of flowers, the pollen grains are ribbon
like without exine?.
a) Anemophilous
b) Hypohydrophilous
c) Epihydrophilous
d) Entomopholous
5. In ovule, meiosis occurs in …………..
a) Nucellus
b) integument
c) Megaspore
d) Megaspore mother cell

93. 7. The ploidy level is not the same in …….
8. In Angiosperms endosperm is formed by/due to …..
a) Free nuclear divisions of megaspore
b) Polar nuclei
c) Polar nuclei & male gamete
d) Synergids & male gamete
a) Integuments & nucellus
b) Root tip & Shoot tip
c) Secondary nucleus & Endosperm
d) Antipodals & Synergids

94. 9. The Male reproductive whorl of flower is called as ….
a) anthers
b) Inner to the pistil
c) androecium
d) pistillate
10. The stalk of the ovule is called as ………….
a) funicle
b) peduncle
c) pedicel
d) petiole