Presentations for aspiring Biology students

1. Respiration

2. Defination
It is the process of oxidation of food brought about by gaseous
exchange where oxygen is taken in and CO2 is released out as a result
of oxidation.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATPs
Organism Habitat Respiratory
Surface/Organ
Protists, Sponges, Coelenterates Aquatic

3. Respiratory System
External Respiration / Breathing
Internal Respiration / Tissue respiration
It is divided into
Respiratory tract Respiratory organ
Nostrils &Nasal chambers
Pharynx
Larynx / Adam’s apple
Bronchi & Bronchioles
Trachea
Lungs

4.  Tonsils (lymphatic tissue) kill bacteria
trapped in mucous.
 Sensory part – detects smell.
 Vestibule – anterior-most, hairs trap dust particles.
 Respiratory part – richly blood supply, warms & moistens air
1. Nostrils & Nasal Chambers
 Vertical tube 12 cm in length, upper
part naso-pharynx & lower part
larnygo-pharynx.
2. Pharynx
Respiratory System

5. o Along the sides are elastic folds called vocal chords.
o Opening of larynx is called glottis, guarded by epiglottis.
3. Larynx / Adam’s apple
o Sound producing organ.
4. Trachea / Wind pipe
o Internally lined by ciliated epithelium & mucous glands.
o 12 cms long, 2.5 cms wide, infront of oesophagus.
o Wall made up of fibrous muscular tissue supported by “C” shaped
cartilage(16-20).
Respiratory System

6. 5. Bronchi & Bronchioles
o Two bronchi behind the sternum, Each bronchus is supported by
complete ring of cartilage.
o Each bronchus further divides into secondary & tertiary bronchi,
which further divides into very small bronchioles.
o Each bronchiole finally ends into balloon like alveolus.
Respiratory System

7. 6. Lungs
o Paired hollow elastic organs in thoracic cavity.
o Light pink, soft spongy & highly
vascular.
o Left lung 2 lobed & right lung 3
lobed.
o Enclosed by pleura (outer parietal &
inner visceral).
o The enclosed cavity is pleural
cavity, filled with pleural fluid for
lubrication & prevention of
friction.
o Each alveolar sac contains 20
alveoli.
o 750 million alveoli, area covered about 50 times of skin.
Respiratory System

8. Mechanism of Respiration
o Alternate inspiration & exspiration is called respiratory cycle.
o Inspiration & Exspiration.
o Ribs, Inter-coastal muscles, Sternum & Diaphragm are involved .
o 16-20 times per minute controlled by medulla oblongata.
o Ribs, Inter-coastal muscles contract.
o Sternum is lifted upwards & outwards.
o Diaphragm is flattened creating vacumn.
o This results in air entering inside, & is termed inspiration.
Inspiration

9. o Ribs, Intercoastal muscles relax.
o Sternum moves downwards &
inward.
o Diaphragm becomes dome-shaped,
resulting in squeezing lungs from all
directions.
o Hence air leaves lungs & is termed
exspiration.
Mechanism of Respiration
Exspiration

10. Video

11. i) Formation of oxy-haemoglobin
O2 combines with haemoglobin forming oxy-
haemoglobin
External respiration
A Exchange of gases
Due to concentration difference, RBC’s take
up O2 & CO2 is released in lungs.
Transport of Gases
ii)Release of carbon-di-oxide
CO2 is brought in the form of bicarbonates of Na & K.
NaHCO3  Na+ + H2CO3 / KHCO3  K + + H2CO3
Carbonic acids breaks to release CO2
H2CO3  H2O + CO2
CO2 is also brought in the form of carbaminohaemoglobin
Carbaminohaemoglobin also releases CO2
HbCO2  Hb + CO2

12. Oxyhaemoglobin breaks into tissues to liberate Oxygen.
Carbondioxide dissolves in cellular fluid & plasma to form carbonic
acid, which is converted into bicarbonates of Na & K.
80 to 85% of CO2 is carried in the form of bicarbonates.
10% is released in the form of carbaminohaemoglobin.
5% remains in the plasma & is carried to lungs.
Internal respiration
Takes place in mitochondria, involves formation of ATP from breakdown
of Glucose.
Cellular respiration

13. Exspiratory Volume : Volume during forced exspiration
Inspiratory Volume : Volume during forced inspiration
Residual Volume : Volume left behind in lungs &respiratory passage
after forced exspiration.
Vital Capacity : Total volume exspired after maximum inspiration.
Tidal Volume: Volume breathed in/out during restful breathing.
Some important terminologies

14. Asthma: -- inflammatory disease of airway.
Reversible over-reactivity of the smooth muscles.
The muscle layer and mucous of bronchi gets thickened with an
increase in the size of mucous gland thus reducing the air flow in the
tract.
During attack the bronchial muscles undergo spasmodic contractions
and also there is excessive secretion of sticky mucous which further
narrow the pathway.
Inspiration is normal but expiration is partial hence lungs are hyper-
inflated and there is severe dyspoea and wheezing (noise during
breathing especially exspiration). Duration of attack varies from few minutes
to hours.
In severe attacks bronchi may get obstructed by mucous leading to
acute respiratory failure leading to death.
Cold air, Cigarette smoking, Air pollution, respiratory tract infection,
emotional stress, strenuous exercise can cause asthma.
RESPIRATORY DISORDERS

15. Pharyngitis: Inflammation of upper respiratory tract, caused by
viruses. Streptococcus pyogenes causes inflammation of palliative
tonsils and pharyngeal wall. Common cold usually is associated.
Laryngitis: Inflammation of larynx due virus/bacteria. It is more
common in children. Voice becomes husky, severe infection causes
aphasia. It develops feeling of rawness in throat. Stridor (high pitched
musical breathing sound due to obstruction of airway) is seen in children.
Irritating cough accompanies. Vocal misuse or overuse are the causes.
Allergic Rhinitis (Hay fever): In this condition atopic (immediate)
hypersensitivity to foreign particles resulting in acute inflammation of
nasal mucosa and conjunction causes rhinorrhea (excessive exudates from
nose). Genetic factor has not yet been identified but it tends to run in
families.
RESPIRATORY DISORDERS

16. Pneumonia: It is infection of alveoli, occurs due to failure of protective
mechanism and intrusion of microbes forming colonies in lungs.
Following are the common causes
•Impaired coughing: It is caused due to unconsciousness, damage to
respiratory muscles or nerves or painful coughing. The secretions
accumulate sets the infection. Ciliary action may be impaired due to
use of tobacco, smoking etc. Use of tobacco, alcohol, anoxia (absence
of oxygen) & Oxygen toxicity (seen in divers, damages lungs, eyes, brain)
depresses the activity of macrophages.
•Other factors: They include reduced resistance, leucopenia (decrease
in WBC’s), cardiac failure, renal failure etc.
It is also caused due to pathogens like Streptococcus pneumoniae,
Mycoplasma, Viruses, Protozoans.
RESPIRATORY DISORDERS

17. Occupational lung disease: they are group of diseases caused due to
inhaling pollutants at work place. The particles are so small that they
reach the bronchioles, alveoli and can be removed only by the activity
of macrophages (phagocytosis).
Silicosis: It is caused due to long term exposure to dust containing
Silicon compounds. The particles accumulate and are ingested by
macrophages, become actively toxic to these cells. Inflammatory action
is triggered when macrophages destroy the particles and results in
fibrosis. Silicosis appears to predispose to development of
tuberculosis, which rapidly progresses to tubercular
bronchopneumonia and possibly military TB. Gradual destruction of
lung tissue leads to progressive reduction in pulmonary function,
pulmonary hypertension and heart failure.
RESPIRATORY DISORDERS

18. Asbestosis: caused by inhaling asbestos fibres, usually develops 10 to
20 years (but sometimes 2 years). Asbestos miners & workers are at
risk. Blue asbestosis is associated with the most serious disease.
Poisoning by Carbon monoxide
When a person is in a place with excess of CO. the air inhaled contains
large amount of CO and less amount of O2. The CO diffuses into blood
from alveolar air and reacts with Hb to form carboxy Hb. This being a
stable molecule blocks the Hb and thus it is no more available for
conduction of O2.
RESPIRATORY DISORDERS

19. Circulation

20.  Blood and lymph carry out circulation
INTRODUCTION
Types of Blood Vascular System
 Continuous movement of blood through the heart and blood vessels by
which nutrients, oxygen, internal secretions and wastes are carried is called
circulation.
Open circulation Closed circulation
 Circulation through body
cavities (haemocoels)
 No cavities, circulation is
through blood vessels.
(no haemocoels)
 Organs lie in blood filled
cavities.
 Exchange of materials takes
place directly.
 Blood flows with low pressure
& without respiratory
pigment.
 Example: Arthropods and
Molluscs
 Organs do not lie in blood filled
cavities.
 Exchange of materials takes
place indirectly (through lymph).
 Blood flows with high pressure &
is with haemoglobin
(respiratory pigment).
 Example: Higher Molluscs,
annelids and vertebrates.

21. Single circulation Double circulation
 Blood passes through heart
once
 Blood passes twice from the heart.
 Deoxygenated blood passes
from heart to gills.
 Oxygenated blood from gills
flows to all parts and back to
heart for oxygenation.
 As heart carries only
deoxygenated blood hence it is
called Venous heart.
 Example: Fishes
 Deoxygenated blood from heart
flows to lungs & back to heart
after oxygenation.
(pulmonary circulation)
 Oxygenated blood flows to all
parts except lungs from heart.
(systemic circulation)
 Blood flows with high pressure &
is with haemoglobin.
(respiratory pigment).
 Example: birds and mammals.
Closed circulation

22.  Function is transport, homeostasis
and protection.
 Consists of Heart, Blood and
Blood vessels.
 Lymph is blood without RBC’s,
platelets and some proteins.
 Fluid from intercellular spaces
enters lymphatic vessels, then
discharged into veins through
Thoracic duct and right lymphatic
duct .
 Consists of Lymph, lymph vessels,
some organs and tissues.
HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Lymphatic System
Blood vascular system

23.  Formed from MESODERM, slightly alkaline, salty and viscous, heavier
than water.
 Red coloured fluid connective tissue -- 4 to 6 litres of blood
Straw coloured, slightly alkaline, viscous fluid.
 Water – 90%
 Consists of two main components; Fluid plasma (55%) & Formed elements
(i.e blood cells -- 44%).
Haematology
Plasma
Composition
 Proteins – 7-8%
 Inorganic salts – 1%
 Others – 1-2%
albumin, globulin, properdin, prothrombin, fibrinogen
Na, K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Mn, Cl-, HCO-
3 and PO3-
4
Food – glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, triglycerides.
Wastes – urea, uric acid and creatinine
Regulators – hormones, enzymes, vitamins
Anticoagulants (heparin)
Cholesterol & antibodies
Dissolved gases (O2, CO2, N2)

24. Haematology
Formed elements
 Most abundant, circular, biconcave
and enucleated (except camel & Llama)
Red blood corpuscles / Erythrocytes
WBC’s
RBC’s Platelets
Structure
 Mature erythrocyte is devoid of
nucleus, mitochondria & other
organelles.
 Cytoplasm is rich in haemoglobin
 It also contains the enzyme
carbonic anhydrase.
Composition

25. Haematology
Red blood corpuscles / Erythrocytes
 Produced by haemocytoblasts /
reticulocytes by erythropoiesis.
 Erythropoeitic organ is liver &
spleen (foetal stage) & in adults
it is red bone marrow
 Requirements -- Vitamin B12,
Folic acid and haeme proteins.
 TOTAL RBC COUNT
5.1 – 5.8 million/mm3 (males)
4.3 – 5.2 million/mm3 (females)
Production
 The haematocrit is ratio of the
volume of RBC’s to total volume
of blood.
(Different for men and women)

26. Haematology
 Old and worn out RBC’s are
destroyed in liver and spleen.
(Graveyard)
 Condition with increase in the
number of RBC’s is called
polycythemia.
 Condition with decrease in the
number of RBC’s is called
erythrocytopenia.
 The hormone erythropoietin
(produced by the kidney cells) regulates
production of RBC’s
(stimulation of bone marrow).
Regulation
 Average life span is 120 days.

27.  Erythrocytes are responsible for
transport of respiratory O2 and
CO2, maintaining pH and viscosity
of blood.
 Contribute in the process of blood
clotting.
Haematology
Functions

28. Haematology
White blood corpuscles / Leucocytes
 Average number of WBC’s
produced are 5000-11000 per mm3
of blood.
 Decrease in number <4000 leucopenia (HIV, TB, patients exposed to radiations,
shock)
 Temporary increase in WBC’s is termed as leucocytosis (due to infection,
pregnancy, new borns).
 Colourless, nucleated, amoeboid,
larger than RBC’s.
 Uncontrolled increase in WBC’s is called as Leukemia (cancer).
Structure
Regulation
Production

29. Haematology
White blood corpuscles / Leucocytes
 Move out of capillary walls due to amoeboid nature -- diapedesis
Special feature  WBC’s exhibit polymorpism.
Granulocytes Agranulocytes
TYPES of WBC’s
 Granulocyte is a Polymorpho
nuclear leucocyte (PMN).
 Cells are formed from Myleoid
stem cells (bone marrow) once
formed do not divide.
 Cytoplasm is agranular
72% 28%
 Staining property of granules
decides the type of cell.
 Granules are secretory vesicles
containing various enzymes,
secretions.
 Cytoplasm is granular.
 Cells are formed from Lymphoid
stem cells (bone marrow) & divide by
mitosis.
 Nucleus is large & unlike
granulocytes non lobulated. (No PMN).

30. Haematology
Neutrophils
Basophils/Cyanophils
Acidophils/Eosinophils Granulocytes
 Number increases in
allergic conditions,
antihistamine
property exhibited.
 Destroy antigen-
antibody complex
by phagocytosis.
 1-3%, nucleus
bilobed
 Lysosomal granules,
acidic stain – Eosin
(red colour)
 Secrete Heparin,
histamine &
serotonin.
 Present in infected
/allergic conditions.
 0.5-1%, nucleus
twisted
 Few large sized
granules, basic stain
– methylene blue
 Pus – mixture of
dead neutrophils,
damaged tissues &
dead microbes
 Destroy Pathogens
by phagocytosis.
 70%, nucleus multi-
lobed (2-7 lobes).
 Very fine numerous
granules stained by
neutral stain (dyes).
 Antitoxins produced
detoxify.
 Non phagocytic,
small spherical cells.
 Spherical cells,
perform amoeboid
movements.

31. Lymphocytes
 B-lymphocytes mature in bone
marrow & responsible for
antibody production/humoral
immunity.
 B-lymphocytes & T-lymphocytes
 Smallest with large spherical
nucleus, 25-30%.
 T-lymphocytes mature in thymus
& are responsible for cell
mediated immunity.
 Helper cells, Killer T cells,
memory T cells and suppressor T
cells are subtypes of T
lymphocytes.
Function  Concerned with defense mechanism (protection).
Haematology
White blood corpuscles / Leucocytes
Agranulocytes
B-lymphocyte
Helper T cells Suppressor T cells
Killer T cells
T-lymphocyte
Memmory T cell

32. Monocytes
Haematology
White blood corpuscles / Leucocytes
Agranulocytes
 Destroy bacteria, dead &
dead/damaged tissue by phagocytosis.
 Actively motile & form macrophages.
 Largest, nucleus is large, bean/kidney
shaped, 3-5%.
Monocyte

33. Haematology
Thrombocytes/Platelets
 Very small, oval cell fragments without nucleus.
 Produced in bone marrow
 Cellular fragments formed from
megakaryocytes.
 Normal count is 2.5-4.5 lakh/mm3.
 If the number decreases than normal, the condition is termed as
thrombocytopenia (causes internal haemmorhage).
 Platelets secrete platelet factors which are essential in blood clotting.
 They also seal the ruptured blood vessels by forming platelet
plug/thrombus.
 They secrete sertonin – local vasoconstrictor
Structure
Regulation
Production
Function
Thrombocytes/Platelets

34. Coagulation of Blood / Blood Clotting
 Conversion of liquid blood into solid form is clotting/coagulation.
 Intrinsic & Extrinsic process involve interactions of various substances
called clotting factors.
 Initiated by contact of blood with any foreign surface (intrinsic process) or
with damaged tissue (extrinsic process).
 There are 12 factors numbered as I to XIII (factor VI is not in active use).
 Effect of these factors leads to the following changes;
“Formation of enzyme Thrombin”
 Thromboplastin helps in formation of Prothrombinase.
 Prothrombinase inactivates Heparin & also converts inactive
prothrombin into active thrombin.
 Thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin.
 Fibrin forms a mesh trapping platelets & other blood cells forming
clot.

35. Coagulation of Blood / Blood Clotting
FLOW CHART
Extrinsic pathway
Damage to tissue
outside the vessel
Tissue
Thromboplastin
Inactive factor X
Activated factor X
Prothrombin Thrombin
Fibrinogen Fibrin Blood Clot
Intrinsic pathway
Damage to the vessel
Cascade of clotting
factors

36. Heart
Heart
 Main pumping organ, reddish brown in
colour, hollow muscular organ.
 Conical in shape and lies in mediastenum
(space between two lungs)
 Average weight – 300 gms in males, 250
gms in females.
 Broader at upper end (base) & conical at
lower end (apex). This end is slightly tilted
to left side and rests on the diaphragm.
Heart - Weight
Heart – Shape , Size & Position

37. Heart
 Both the layers are separated by
pericardial space filled with
pericardial fluid (50 ml).
 Acts as a shock absorber, also
lubricates & maintains moisture.
Heart -- coverings
 Enclosed in membranous sac –
pericardium, outer fibrous & inner
serous pericardium
 Serous pericardium is soft, moist &
elastic, formed of squamous
epithelium, two layers namely;
parietal & visceral.

38.  Mesodermal in origin, 3 layered outer
epicardium, middle myocardium & inner
endocardium
 Epicardium thin single layer of flat
squamous epithelium resting on basement
membrane (protective).
 Mesocardium -- middle thick layer of cardiac muscles (contraction &
relaxation).
Heart wall
 Endocardium -- single thin layer of flat squamous epithelium (protective).
Heart

39. Heart
 Heart is four chambered, two
superior atria (auricles) & two
inferior ventricles.
 Externally coronary sulcus / atrio-
ventricular groove separates the
atria & ventricles.
External Structure of Heart
 The anterior & posterior inter-
ventricular sulci separate the
ventricles.
 Coronary circulation takes place through these sulci.
 Pulmonary trunk (right ventricle), aorta (left ventricle) are present on the
anterior surface of heart.

40. Heart
 The Ligametum arteriosum joins
pulmonary trunk and aortic arch.
(remnant of embryonic duct ductus arteriosis).
 Three arteries emerge from aortic arch namely; brachiocephalic (inominate),
left common carotid, & left subclavian.
External Structure of Heart
 The right atrium recieves superior & inferior venecava along its dorsal
surface.
 Pulmonary veins open into left atrium along the dorsal surface.
 Pulmonary trunk bifurcates into right
& left pulmonary arteries.
 Aorta is divided into 3 regions
namely; ascending aorta, systemic
arch/aortic arch, descending aorta.

41. Heart
ATRIA
 Thin walled receiving chambers
separated by inter-auricular septum.
Internal Structure of Heart
 Inter auricular septum shows oval
depression – fossa ovalis (remnant of
embryonic aperture -- foramen ovalis).
 Superior venecava (precaval), Inferior
venecava (postcaval), coronary sinus
open into right atrium.
 Eustachian valve – Superior
venecava/postcaval, Thebesian
valve – coronary sinus.
 Four pulmonary veins open into left atrium without valves.
 Atria open into ventricles by atrioventricular apertures, guarded by
tricuspid (right AV aperture) & bicuspid/mitral valves (leftAV aperture)..
 Heart valves maintain unidirectional flow, also prevent backflow.

42. Heart
VENTRICLES
 Inferior, thick walled, pumping
chambers.
Internal Structure of Heart
 Inter ventricular septum separates
right & left ventricles.
 Wall of left ventricle is more
muscular & 3 times thicker than
right.
 Inner surface shows several ridges –
columnae carnae/trabaculae carnae.
 Lumen is hence divided into small pockets/fissures. It also shows inelastic
fibres -- chordae tendinae.
 They attach the valves to ventricular wall (papillary muscles) to regulate
opening & closing.
 Right ventricle open into pulmonary aorta, left open into aorta guarded by
semilunar valves – prevent backflow into ventricles.

43. Heart
 Rhythmic contraction (systole) &
relaxation (diastole) of heart is
brought about by cardiac muscles.
Pumping action of Heart
 A systole followed by a diastole
constitutes heart beat. Heart beats
70-72 times per min – heart rate.
 About 70 ml of blood is pumped by
ventricles in each heart beat –
stroke volume.
 Cardiac output = Heart rate X Stroke Volume
i.e. 72 X 70 = 5040ml (5 litres approximately)

44. Heart
 Human heart is myogenic, auto
rhythmic – cardiac musculature
(nodal tissue) is distributed in heart.
Conducting tissue of Heart
 A part (nodal tissue) present in
upper right corner of right atrium,
lies at the base of superior venecava
-- SA node.
 Another mass of nodal tissue --
Autorhythmic fibres (conducting
tissue) control beating rate of heart.
 Conducting (nodal) tissue consists
of SA node, AV node, Bundle of
His and Purkinje fibres.

45. Heart
 SA node (right atrium) –
pacemaker, passes contraction to
left ventricle & AV node.
Conducting system of Heart
 AV node is present in right atrial
wall near the base of inter-atrial
septum – pace setter of heart.
 Bundle of His/Tawara branches,
passes through inter-ventricular
septum.
 Right and left branches form network in ventricular walls & are called as
purkinje fibers.
 Bundle of His and Purkinje fibers spread impulses in ventricles.

46. Heart
 Consecutive systole & diastole
constitutes a single heartbeat or cardiac
cycle (0.8 sec).72 beats are completed in a
minute in an adult.
Working Mechanism of Heart.
 Right atrium – deoxygenated blood
Left atrium – oxygenated blood
 Completely filled atria exerts pressure
on the wall, SA node gets excited,
generates cardiac impulse, causing
contraction thereby the atrial systole.
 Blood is pumped in ventricles, back flow in veins & coronary sinus is
prevented by Eustachian & Thebesian valve respectively.
Cardiac Cycle
a. Atrial Systole
 In normal conditions atrial systole is for 0.1sec & diastole is 0.7 sec.

47. Heart
 Impulse reaches AV node,
excites sends impulse to bundle
of His & purkinje’s fibres.
Working Mechanism of Heart.
 Purkinje’s fibres spreads
impulse to all over the walls of
ventricles.
 Ventricles undergo systole, right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood into
pulmonary trunk & left ventricle to aorta.
 The cuspid valves prevent backflow (lubb sound is heard).
b. Ventricular systole

48. Heart
Working Mechanism of Heart.
b. Ventricular systole
 Ventricular systole lasts for 0.3 sec, & diastole (VD) for 0.5 sec. during
diastole semilunar valves prevent the back flow from pulmonary trunk &
systemic aorta into ventricles (dub sound is heard).
 For 0.4 sec atria & ventricles are in
diastole, when all chamber are in diastole
it is termed as joint diastole/complete
diastole.
 Duration of one cardiac cycle is 0.8 sec.
 Total volume pumped in ventricular
systole – stroke volume (SV -- 70 ml).
 Cardiac output (CO) = SV x HR = 70 x 72
= 5040 ml/min

49. Blood Vessels
 Carry oxygenated blood (except
pulmonary artery).
Blood Vessels
 Usually deeply situated (except
radial, brachial, femoral).
Arteries Veins
 Carry deoxygenated blood (except
pulmonary vein).
 Usually superficially situated,
(amount of blood through veins per unit
time is venous return).
 No valves hence blood flow is
rapid with high pressure
 Valves prevent backflow. Blood
flow is slow with low pressure
Capillaries
Arteries Veins

50. Blood Vessels
 Tunica externa/adventitia –
outermost, thick, tough, collagen
fibres
Arteries Veins
 Tunica media – smooth muscles,
elastic fibres makes it pulsatile.
 Tunica interna – innermost, single
layered flat endothelial cells,
(angular margin shows tesselations).
 Tunica externa/adventitia –
outermost, thick, tough, collagen
fibres
 Tunica media – thinner, lumen is
wide & narrow.
 Tunica interna – innermost, single
layer of flat endothelial cells.
Blood Vessels

51. Capillaries
 Wall is single layered , flat
squamous epithelium on
basement membrane.
 Wall is stretchable, blood flows
with high pressure.
 Wall shows endothelial
pores/fenestrae, WBC’s escape
(diapedesis)
Blood Vessels
Blood Vessels

52. Pulse
Pulse
 Series of pressure waves which travel through arteries due to ventricular
systole.
 Strongest near heart, gradually weakens.
 Can be felt in superficial arteries (radial – wrist,
carotid – neck)
 Pulse rate = Heart rate
 Higher than normal (above 100 beats/min) – Tachycardia
 Slower (below 60 beats/min) – Bradycardia

53. Blood Pressure
Blood Pressure
 Pressure exerted by blood on the walls of blood vessels (arteries) is blood
pressure.
 Measured by Sphygmomanometer.
 B.P = SP/DP = 120/80 mm Hg
 Difference between SP & DP is called pulse pressure (usually 40 mm Hg).
 Hypotension – below 90/60 mm Hg Hypertension – above 140/90 mm Hg.
Arterial Blood Pressure
 Pressure exerted by blood on the walls of arteries is arterial blood pressure.
 Systolic Pressure (SP) is exerted by blood on the walls of arteries during to
ventricular contraction. (In healthy adult – 120mm Hg)
 Diastolic Pressure (DP) is exerted by blood on the walls of arteries during to
ventricular relaxation. (In healthy adult – 80mm Hg)
 Reasons

54. Heart
 High/low blood volume
Reasons for malfunctioning of Heart
 Arterial inelasticity (hardening -- arteriosclerosis)
 Deposition of fats like cholestrol (atherosclerosis))
 Renal diseases
 Emotion induced hormonal changes
 Obesity
Factors affecting Blood pressure
 Cardiac output
 Peripheral resistance
 Blood volume
 Length & diameter of blood vessels
 Viscosity of blood  Age
 Gender
 Venous return
 Sleep
 Emotions
 Excercise
 Anxiety

55. Blood Pressure
Blood Pressure
 Normal Cardiac Output = 5
lit/min, increase in cardiac output
increases systolic pressure.
 Peripheral resistance depends on
diameter of vessels, due to ADH
diameter decreases thereby
increasing blood pressure.
 Blood pressure is directly proportional to viscosity, total length of blood
vessels & venous return.
 Blood pressure increases due to increase in inelasticity (age).
 Blood loss in accidents reduces blood volume, thereby decreasing blood
pressure.
 Females have lower BP as compared to males till menopause, however risk
increases after menopause.
 Blood pressure depends on vaso-
constriction & dilation as well.

56. Measurement of Blood Pressure
Blood Pressure -- measurement
 Blood pressure is measured by sphygmomanometer, it consists of inflatable
rubber bag cuff covered by cotton cloth.
 Instrument is placed at the level of heart & the cuff is tightly wrapped
around upper arm. It is inflated till the brachial artery is blocked.
 Sounds heard during measurement of
blood pressure are called Korotkoff
sounds.
 Pressure in the cuff is further lowered
till any pulsatile sound cannot be heard
due to smooth blood flow. This pressure
is diastolic pressure
 The pressure is slowly lowered till the first pulsatile sound is heard,
pressure is indicated in manometer, this is systolic pressure.
 Optimal blood pressure levels reads 120/80 mm Hg.
 It is connected with the help of tubes on one side to a mercury manometer,
& other to a rubber bulb.

57. Blood Pressure - defects
Blood Pressure -- defects
 Persistently raised blood pressure higher than normal is hypertension.
 Damages Brain, Heart & Kidney
 Chest pain is due to lowered blood
supply to cardiac muscles, may lead to
myocardial infarction.
 Chances of Brain haemorrhage are more because arteries in brain are less
protected by surrounding tissue.
 In hypertension heart uses more energy
for pumping causing angina pectoris –
chest pain.
 Hypertension may cause kidney failure.
 Threshold reading – 140/90 mmHg, 180/120 mm Hg are dangerous.
Hypertension

58. Blood Pressure - defects
Blood Pressure -- defects
 It is also called as atherosclerosis.
 Characteristics are severe pain & heaviness, pain
may spread to neck, lower jaw, left arm &
shoulder.
 Pain usually is due to exertion, where there is
more demand of oxygen, but supply doesn’t meet
the requirement.
 Pain in chest resulting from reduced blood
supply to cardiac muscles because of
arteriosclerosis or atherosclerosis.
 Calcium, cholestrol, & fibrous tissue
gets deposited in blood vessels of
heart (lumen becomes narrow).
Coronary Artery disease (CAD)
Angina Pectoris

59. Blood Pressure - defects
Treatment of defects
 Angiography is X ray imaging of
cardiac blood vessels to locate
blockages.
 Remedial measures like
angioplasty, by-pass surgery are
suggested.
Angiography
 In angioplasty stent is inserted at
the site of blockage to restore
blood supply.
 In By pass surgery the
atherosclerotic region is bypassed
by artery/vein taken from any
other suitable part.

60. Blood Pressure - defects
 Silent myocardial infarction is a type of heart attack lacks general
symptoms of heart attack (like extreme chest pain, hypertension, shortness of breadth,
sweating & dizziness).
Silent Heart Attack
 Symptoms are so mild that person often confuses it for regular discomfort
& thereby ignores it.
 Men are more affected by silent heart attack than women.
 Replacement of severely damaged heart by heart from brain dead/recently
dead donor is called as heart transplant.
Heart Transplant
 It is necessary in patients with end stage heart failure & severe coronary
arterial disease.
 In By pass surgery the atherosclerotic region is bypassed by artery/vein
taken from any other suitable part.

61. Blood Pressure - defects
Electocardiogram
 The recording can be in the form of printout or onscreen display, it is done
by ECG machine/electrocardiograph.
 Four electrodes are positioned on
limbs (limb electrodes), six electrodes on
chest (chest electrodes).
 Graphical recording of
electrical variations detected
at the surface of the body
during their propagation
through the wall of heart is
electrocardiogram (ECG).

62. Blood Pressure - defects
Electocardiogram
 In normal record, three waves are
recognized P wave, QRS complex
& T wave
 P wave – small upward deflection
from baseline (representing atrial
depolarization).
 QRS complex – slight downward deflection from baseline, continues as
sharp & large upright wave & ends as a downward wave (representing
ventricular depolarization).
 T wave – small, wide upwardly elevated wave (representing ventricular
repolarization).

63. Blood Pressure - defects
Electocardiogram -- applications
 Helps to diagnose abnormality in conducting pathway, enlargement of
heart chambers, damages to cardiac muscles & causes of chest pain.
 A physician can find out the defect by examining the wave pattern & time
interval between them.