method of plant propagation and planning orchard

1. Course: B.Sc. Agriculture
Subject: Principles of Horticulture
Unit :2
Method of plant propagation
and planning orchard

2. Plant propagation can be defined as controlled
reproduction of a plant by a man in order to a selected individuals,
or group of individuals which is having specific values to him.
Plant Propagation
Method of Propagation
1. Sexual Propagation
2. Asexual Propagation

3. Multiplication of plants by using seed is called as sexual propagation.
Advantages
1. The plant raised by seed is planted lived.
2. They are hardy with deep root system. So they are vigorous in growth.
3. The possibility is there to obtain change in seedling, the performance of
which are better than their parents. E.g. mango variety like Alpahanso
Dasharia.
4. The polyembryony. The phenomenon of propagation of more than one
seedling from a single seed, produce true to type, nuclear embryonic
seedling which could be used as rootstock for uniform performance. E.g.
Mango, varieties Olour and bappakal. It is also common in citrus and
jamun.
Sexual Propagation in Plants

4. 5. Seed propagation is necessary when vegetative propagation is
unsuccessful or expenses. e.g. papaya, coconut and Areca nut.
7. Roots stocks are usually raised by seed e.g. Rangpur lime and
Jamberi for citrus.
8. When seedling is required in large number, seed propagation is
the only easy mean e.g. Dry land fruit, and Forest spp.

5. 1. When progenies are not true type an so they become inferior because in
the commercial orchard, it is necessary to have uniform quality, growth
and yielding capacities.
2. Choice tree or any hybrid trees cannot be perpetuated true to type by
seed. (except in Apomixes )
3. Seedling has a long juvenile period. In crops like citrus, coca, and rubber.
The seeds must be sown a fresh. i.e. immediately after extraction. Many
varieties are seedless.
4. Seeds loose its viability in short period.
Disadvantages
Seed Germination and Seed Propagation
Seed propagation is necessary in the following cases
i) Where vegetative propagation is unsuccessful or difficult or expensive.
ii) It is necessary for raising rootstock for grafting and budding. E. g
Rangpur lime and Jamberi for citrus, khirni for Sapota.
In all such cases rootstock plants have to be raised through seeds mostly.

6. 1. The progenies are true to type like mother plant.
2. Vegetative propagation is the only alternate where no seed is formed or
germination of seed is very slow or no viable seed is formed. (e.g. Banana,
Pine-apple and roses, seedless grape ).
3. Certain rootstock has the capacity of resisting or tolerating the adverse
environment factors such as frost and adverse soil factors like salinity or
alkalinity. E.g. frost resistance, foncirus trifoliate (Trifoliate orange ). Rangpur
lime.
4. The ability of certain rootstock to resistant pest and diseases can be
advantageously expected. An apple when grafted on rootstock like Merton
778,793 is resistant for wholly aphid.
Asexual Propagation in Plants
Asexual propagation or vegetative propagation refers to the multiplication or
perpetuation of any plant from any vegetative parts as plant other then the seed.
Advantages of Vegetative Propagation

7. 5. Vegetative propagated plants are generally dwarfed in nature than the
seedlings. Dwarf trees facilitate pruning spraying and harvesting easy
seedling. Dwarf trees facilate pruning, spraying and harvesting easy and
more number of plants can be accommodated in a unit area.
6. To replant an undesirable existing tree either with reference to its
quality or susceptibility to pests and diseases. The defect can be
overcome easily by vegetative propagation through grafting or budding
of desirable scion to the existence tree by top working technique.
7. Many plants are propagated by vegetative means because of the speedy
easy of multiplication.
8. Novelty can be developed by grafting or budding on single plant many
varieties. E.g. Roses.
9. To convert inferior varieties in superior, side grafting in mango.

8. 1. Plant is not vigorous and long lived.
2. No new varieties are evolved or developed.
3. These methods are expensive and labourious and time
consuming.
Disadvantages

9. SPECIALIZED
VEGETATIVE
STRUCTURES
ON THE OWN ROOT SYSTEM ON THE ROOT SYSTEM OF OTHETR
PLANTS
MICRO-
PROPAGATION
CUTTING LAYERING GRAFTING BUDDING
a. Bulb-
onion,
garlic
b. Corms –
Amorphophallus
c. Rhizomes-
Ginger,
Turmeric
d. Tubers – Potato
Root tuber –
Sweet potato
e. Suckers-
Pineapple,
banana
Chrysanthemum
,
f. Offsets-
Datepalm,
pineapple
g. Runners-
Strawberry
h. Crown-
Pineapple
i. Stolon- Durva
grass
a.Stem cutting
i. Hardwood
cutting
Rubber, Croton
Hibiscus
ii. Semi-hardwood
cutting- Rose
Aralia,
Eranthemum
iii. Softwood
cutting
Exora, Duranta
iv. Herbaceous
cutting
Portulaca, Pilea,
b. Leaf cutting
Bryophyllum,
sensiviera
c. Leaf bud cutting
Lemon, Currants,
Peperomia, Black
berry
d. Root cutting
Guava, Jasmine,
Curry neem
e. Heel cutting
f. Mallet cutting
a. Air layering/
Goottee or
Marcotage-
Exora, Hibiscus
b. Ground
layering
i. Simple layering
Pothos
ii. Tongue layering
Jasmine
iii. Tip layering -
Fern
iv. Trench layering
Apple, Pear,
Peach
v. Mound
Layering
Mango
vi. Compound/
Multiple/
Serpentine
Layering-
Vines, Creepers
(A)Scion attached
a.Approach / Inarch
grafting
Mango, Sapota
b. Splice approach
grafting-
c. Bark grafting
d. Saddle grafting
(B) Scion detached
i. Veneer grafting -
Mango
ii. Wedge grafting
Mango, Sapota
iii. Softwood grafting-
Mango, Sapota,
jack,
Aonla, Tamarind
iv.
Epicotyl/Stone/Bench
grafting
Mango
v. Whip grafting
vi. Saddle grafting
vii. Bridge grafting
viii. Buttress grafting
a. Shield budding
Rose,
Citrus,Ber
b. ‘T’ or ‘’ – Rose,
Ber
c. Patch budding
Aonla, Rubber,
Bael
d. Ring budding-
Ber
e. Chip budding –
Aonla
f. ‘I’ buding- Rose
g. Forkert budding
h. Flute budding
a. Meristem culture
b. Embryo culture
c. Callus culture
d. Cell culture
e.Protoplast culture

10. Cuttings
Stem cuttings:
Numerous plant species are propagated by stem cuttings.
Some can be taken at any time of the year, but stem cuttings
of many woody plants must be taken in the fall or in the
dormant season.
“Cutting is a method of asexual propagation in which a portion of any
Vegatative part such as stem, leaf or root is cut from the parent plant and is
placed under favorable environmental condition to form roots and shoots,
thus producing a new independent plant.”

11. Tip cuttings:
Detach a 2 to 6 inch piece of stem including the
terminal bud. Make the cut just below a node.
Remove lower leaves that would touch or be
below the medium. Dip the stem in rooting
hormone if desired. Gently tap the end of the
cutting to remove excess hormone. Insert the
cutting deeply enough into the media to
support itself. At least one node must be
below the surface.
Cane cutting:
Cut cane-like stems into sections containing one
or two eyes or nodes. Dust ends with fungicide or
activated charcoal. Allow the canes to dry for
several hours. Lay horizontally with about half of
the cutting below the media surface with the eye
facing upward. Cane cuttings are usually potted
when roots and new shoots appear, but new
shoots from dracaena and croton are often cut off.
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4

12. Single Eye:
The eye refers to the node. This
is used for plants with alternate
leaves when space or stock
material are limited. Cut the
stem about ½ inch above and ½
inch below a node. Place the
cutting horizontally or
vertically in the medium.
Double Eye:
This is used for plants with
opposite leaves when space or
stock material is limited. Cut
the stem about ½ inch above
and ½ inch below the same
node. Insert the cutting
vertically in the medium with
the node just touching the
surface.
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13. Heel cutting:
This is an efficient method for
stock material with woody
stems. Make a shield-shaped
cut about halfway through
the wood around a leaf and
axial bud. Insert the shield
horizontally into the medium.
Leaf cuttings:
Leaf cuttings are used almost
exclusively for a few indoor
plants. Leaves of most plants
will either produce a few
roots but no plant, or the
roots will just decay.
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7

14. Root cuttings:
Root cuttings are usually
taken from 2- to 3-year-old
plants when they have a
large carbohydrate supply in
their dormant season. Root
cuttings of some species
produce new shoots that
form their own root systems,
while root cuttings of other
plants develop root systems
before producing new shoots.
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15. Medial cuttings:
Make the first cut just above a node and the second cut just
above a node 2 to 6 inches down the stem. Prepare and insert the
cutting as you would a tip cutting. Be sure to position the cutting
right side up. Axial buds are always above leaves.
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16. 2. Layering
Compound layering:
This method works for plants with
flexible stems. Bend the stem to
the rooting medium as with simple
layering, but alternately cover and
expose stem sections. Wound the
lower side of the stem sections to
be covered.
Definition:
Layering is the development of roots on a stem while it is still attached to
the parent plant. The rooted stem is stem is then detached to become a new
plant growing on its own roots. Thus rooted stem is known as layer.
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17. Tip layering
Dig a hole 3 to 4 inches deep Insert the shoot tip and
cover it with soil. The tip grows downward first, then bends
sharply and grows upward. Roots form at the bend and the
recurved tip becomes a new plant. Remove the tip layer and
plant it in early spring or late fall. This method is successful with
purple and black raspberries and trailing blackberries.

18. Mound(stool) layering
Cut the plant
back to 1 inch above the
ground in the dormant
season. Mound soil over
the emerging shoots in
spring to enhance their
rooting. This method is
successful with
gooseberries and apple
rootstocks.
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19. Simple layering:
Bend the stem to the ground.
Cover part of it with soil,
leaving the last 6 to 12
inches exposed. Bend the tip
into a vertical position and
stake in place. The sharp
bend will often induce
rooting, but wounding the
lower side of the branch or
loosening the bark by
twisting the stem may help.
This method is successful
with rhododendron and
honeysuckle.
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20. Air layering:
 Air layering is used to propagate
some indoor plants with thick
stems or to rejuvenate them when
they become leggy. Slit the stem
just below a node. Pry the slit
open with a toothpick. Surround
the wound with wet, unmilled
sphagnum moss. Wrap plastic or
foil around the sphagnum moss
and tie it in place. When roots
pervade the moss, cut the plant
off below the root ball. Use this
method with dumbcane and
rubber tree, for example.
 The following propagation
methods can all be considered
types of layering as the new
plants form before they are
detached from their parent plants.
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21. 3.Grafting
Grafting and budding is a art joining two different plant parts together, in such a manner
that they unites and continues their growth as simple plant. In case of building single
bud is inserted in to the stock, where as in grafting a bud stick consisting two or more
buds is inserted in to the stock. Stock is a lower portion of the graft union, where as,
scion is the upper portion a place at which both unites is termed as scion or graft union.
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22. Cleft grafting:
Cleft grafting is often used to change
the cultivar or top growth of a shoot
or a young tree, usually a seedling. It
is especially successful if done in the
early spring. Collect scion pieces 3
to 5 inches long that have one or two
buds. Cut the limb or small tree
trunk to be reworked perpendicular
to its length. Make a 2-inch vertical
cut through the center of the
previous cut, being careful not to
tear the bark, and keep this cut
wedged apart. Cut the lower end of
each scion piece into a wedge.
Prepare two scion pieces 3 to 4
inches long and insert the scions at
the outer edges of the cut in the
stock. Tilt the top of the scion
slightly outward and the bottom
slightly inward to be sure the
cambial layers of the scion and stock
touch. 17

23. Bark grafting:
Unlike most grafting methods, bark
grafting can be used on large limbs although
these are often infected before the wound
can completely heal. Collect scion wood 3/8
to 1/2 inches in diameter when the plant is
dormant; store the wood wrapped in moist
paper in a plastic bag in the refrigerator.
Saw off the limb or trunk of the rootstock at
a right angle to itself. In the spring when the
bark is easy to separate from the wood
(known as slipping), make a 1/2 inch
diagonal cut on one side of the scion and a 1
1/2 inch diagonal cut on the other side.
Leave two buds above the longer cut. Make
a cut a little wider than the scion through the
bark of the stock and remove the top third of
the bark from this cut. Insert the scion with
the longer cut against the wood and nail the
graft in place with flat-headed wire nails.
Cover all wounds with aluminum foil and
clear polyethylene plastic.
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24. Whip or tongue grafting:
This method is often used for
material 1/4 to 1/2 inch in
diameter. The scion and
rootstock are usually the
same diameter, but the scion
may be narrower than the
stock. This strong graft heals
quickly and provides
excellent cambial contact.
Make a single 2 1/2-inch
sloping cut at the top of the
rootstock and a matching cut
on the bottom of the scion.
On the cut surface, slice
downward into the stock and
upward into the scion so the
pieces will interlock. Fit the
pieces together; then tie and
wax the union.
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25. 4.Budding
Patch budding:
Plants with thick bark should
be patch-budded. This is done
while the plants are actively
growing so their bark slips
easily. Remove a rectangular
piece of bark from the
rootstock. Cover this wound
with a bud and matching piece
of bark from the scion. If the
rootstock’s bark is thicker than
that of the scion, pare it down
to meet the thinner bark so that
when the union is wrapped the
patch will be held firmly in
place.
Budding is the vegetative method of plant propagation and can be
defined as “ an art of insertion of a single mature bud in to the stem of the rootstock
in such way that the union takes place and the combination continues to grow. It is
grafting of a single individual bud instead of whole bud stick on scion as in done in
case of grafting.
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26. T-budding:
This is the most commonly
used budding technique
When the bark is slipping,
make a vertical cut (same
axis as the rootstock) through
the bark of the rootstock
while avoiding any buds on
the stock. Make a horizontal
cut at the top of the vertical
cut (in a T-shape) and loosen
the bark by twisting the knife
at the intersection. Remove a
shield-shaped piece of the
scion, including a bud, some
bark and a thin section of
wood. Push the shield under
the loosened stock bark and
wrap the union, leaving the
bud exposed.
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27. Chip budding:
This budding method can be
used when the bark is not
slipping Slice downward
into the rootstock at a 45°
angle through 1/4" of the
wood. Make a second cut
about 1 inch long upward
from the first cut. Remove a
bud and attending chip of
bark and wood from the
scion, shaped so that it fits
the rootstock wound. Fit the
bud chip to the stock and
wrap the union.
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28. 5.SPECIALIZED STRUCTURE
Stolons and runners:
A stolon is a horizontal, often
fleshy stem that can root and then
produce new shoots where it
touches the medium. A runner is a
slender stem that originates in a
leaf axil and grows along the
ground or downward from a
hanging basket, producing a new
plant at its tip. Plants that produce
stolons or runners are propagated
by severing the new plants from
their parent stems. Plantlets at the
tips of runners may be rooted
while still attached to the parent,
or they can be detached and
placed in a rooting medium. This
method can be used with
strawberry and spider plant, for
example.
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29. Offsets:
Plants with a rosetted stem often
reproduce by forming new shoots at
their base or in leaf axils. Sever the
new shoots from the parent plant
after they have developed their own
root system. Unrooted offsets of
some species may be removed and
placed in a rooting medium. Some
of these must be cut off, while
others may be simply lifted off of
the parent stem. For example, this
method can be used with date palm,
haworthia, bromeliads and many
cacti.
Separation
Separation is a form of propagation
by which plants that produce bulbs
or corms multiply.
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30. Bulbs:
New bulbs form beside the originally-planted bulb. Separate these bulb
clumps every 3 to 5 years for largest blooms and to increase bulb population.
Dig up the clump after the leaves have withered. Gently pull the bulbs apart
and replant them immediately so their roots can begin to develop. Small new
bulbs may not flower for 2 or 3 years, but large ones should bloom the first
year. Use this method with tulip and narcissus, for example.
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31. Division:
Plants with more than one rooted crown may be divided and the
crowns planted separately. If the stems are not joined, gently pull the
plants apart. If the crowns are united by horizontal stems, cut the
stems and roots with a sharp knife to minimize injury. Divisions of
some outdoor plants should be dusted with a fungicide before they
are replanted. Try this method with snake plant, iris, prayer plant and
daylilies.
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32. Corms:
A large, new corm forms on top of the old corm, and tiny cormels
form around the large corm. After the leaves wither, dig up the
corms and allow them to dry in indirect light for 2 or 3 weeks.
Remove the cormels, then gently separate the new corm from the
old corm. Dust all new corms with a fungicide and store in a cool
place until planting time. For example, use this method with crocus
and gladiolus

33. • (1) Parts separated : Bulbs, corms, Tuberose,
Spinderlily, lily, Amearallis
Gladiolus, Caladium, Suran,
Onion bulbs
• (2) Parts cut and divided :
Rhizomes, Tubers, crowns, Offsets, Potato, Ginger,
Turmeric, Canna, Banana, Agave, Aspargas, Dates,
Cycus, Dhalia

34. An orchard is a long term investment and deserves a very careful
planning and organization. Any mistakes made initially in the selection of
location, site, planning distance, soil, climate, irrigation facilities, varieties,
and nursery and nursery plant material used, considerably reduce the
returns on investment.
Several growers who establish orchard without proper planning
has to repent later. And the failure not only result in the loss of capital and
wastage of long range efforts of the growers but also proves detrimental to
the spread of the gardening in the locality by making other prospective
fruit grower apprehensive and difficult to invest their money in long arms,
enterprises like fruit growing. It is therefore advisable to seek expert
guidance of an experienced fruit grower before starting the enterprises.
Orchard selection and its of Site

35. 1. Climate and Soil:
Climate and soil are the chief natural factors on which the success or
failure of the fruit growing is dependent. Knowledge of the effect of
various soil and climatic condition on fruit growing is very essential for
every prospective fruit growers as a fruit cannot be grown successfully in
every type of soil and climate. Climate includes several factors like
temperature, rain, atmosphere, humidity, wind, hails, light, whereas the
soils are such factors as physical condition of the soil and its fertility,
nature of sub –soil, its drainage condition, temperature texture and its
consumption.
2. Transport Facilities:
Most of the fruits are perishable and as such their quick transport to the
market without much loss time is important and for this reason the site
selected should be nearer to a cooperative marketing center and should be
connected by a good road or railway, will reduce the transportation cost.
Factors to be considered while Selecting the Site for Fruits

36. 3. Irrigation Facilities:
Adequate irrigation facilities should be available at hand and round
the year. The supply of water should be plentiful and it should b
available at a reasonable cost, otherwise the cost of production will
be increased. The water should be free from objection able
impurities. (Salts)
4. The site should not be close to any diseased plantation or must
be isolated from old plantation.
5. Cheap Man Power:
While selecting the site availability of cheap labour in the vicinity
be taken into considerable so as to keep down the production cost.

37. 6. Owner’s House:
For effective supervision of the orchard, it is essential that the
owner should have his home in his orchard. Therefore, availability
of medical, educational and social amenities in the vicinity also be
considered while selecting the site.
7. The selected soil should be free from cyclones, frost, hails,
storms, strong and not wounds.
8. Market:
The varieties of crop selected should command a good demand in
the market. The market facilities must be available in selected site
for ideal fruit orchard.

38. 1. Square
2. Rectangular
3 Hexagonal
4. Triagular
5. Diagonal or quincunx,
6. Contour.
Different Methods of Planning Orchard

39. 1. Square System:
In this case a tree is planted on each corner of a square whatever
may be plating distance. This plant commonly followed as it is easy
to layout, inter cropping and cultivation is visible in two direction
e.g. Mango, Banana and citrus crops.
3

40. 2. Rectangular System:
This system is similarly of the square system in its layout except in this
layout except in this layout row to row and crop to plant spacing is not
same. E.g Grape ( 3 *2 m ).
3. Hexagonal System:
In this method the trees are planted each corner of equilateral triangular.
This way six trees from ber with the seventh tree in the center. The trees are
equally space from each other. In this system inter cultivation is difficult.
2

41. 4. Triangular System:
In this system they are planted as in the square system but the plants
in th 2nd, 4 th, 6 th, and other alternate rows. These systems have no
special advantages over the square system except more space for the
trees and inter corps. It is difficult for layout cultivation.
1

42. 5. Diagonal or Quincupy:
It is differing from some symptom by planting and additional tree in
the center of each square of plant of trees. The central tree is usually
the filler tree which only for a shorter period. In this layout
population becomes double than square system of mango+ papaya,
mango+ fig.
2

43. 6. Contour System:
It is only followed on hills with high slopes. In this case the tree
rows are planted along a uniform slope and usually at right angle to
the slope with the idea of reducing loss of top soil due to soil
erosion.

44. The wind break means close planting of tall growing trees all
around the orchard is called as wind breaks.
Fruit orchards usually cause heavy losses when exposed to
strong wind. Heavy wind increases the losses of moisture both by
increasing transportation and surface evaporation. The high winds also
cause the damage to fruit trees braking of branches, destruction of blooms
dropping of immature fruit and erosion of surface soil.
The fruits are reduced on the exposed orchard firstly due to
drying of a stigmatic fluid yield and secondly due to reduced activities of
pollinating insect. The growth and yield in protected orchard is definitely
better than the exposed orchard. Hence establishment of a tall growing
windbreak is necessary to protect t orchard.
Wind Breaks

45. While selecting wind more importance is given to the height
than the thickness. Windbreaks will give full protection to a distance of 4-5
times the height of trees and partial protection for some distance where land is
level. The wind break should be erect and tall growing, hardy and drought
resistant occupy less space as for as possible. It should be mechanically strong
and dense to resist maximum wind.
Selection of Wind Breaks
Planting of wind breaks should be done at least 2 years after
plating of fruit trees. These wind breaks they are planted in rows. The first row
of it should be planted 40 feet away from fruit plants one to two rows of such
trees are planted on the west and south side of orchard at a close spacing to
from a thick screen. They are plated at the spacing of 12 feet * 12 feet or 15
feet a thick screen. They wind breaks they are planted in rows.
Planting and Spacing of Wind Breaks

46. Precaution After Planting of Wind Break
The windbreak trees sometimes may compete to the fruit trees
for water and nutrient. To prevent this competition, a trench may dug
about 3 feet deep and 20 feet away from the row of wind break trees and
all the roots of wind break trees exposed in the teach are cut off.
Species Used as Wind Breaks
• The trees are commonly used as windbreaks are as follows:
Polylthia langifolia, casurina equsitifolia, erythrina indica, eucalyptus
ciirddors, gravilla robustus, dalbergia sisso, syzygium cumin, mangifera
indica, Averhoa carambola, bambusa spp.
• To stop soil erosion by wind the wind the breaks which are
used, they are eryhina indica. Bionomia megaputomica, millingtionia
hortensis, cassia pungent etc.
For protection of banana, papaya and beetle vine orchard a
wind break of sysabenia spp. are used.

47. 1. It reduces the wind velocity.
2. It checks the evaporation losses of water from the soil surface.
3. It prevents the damage caused by cold wind and frost.
4. It increases the fruit production by minimizing wind damage.
Advantages of Wind Breaks

48. A cover crop is a crop planted primarily to manage soil erosion, soil fertility,
soil quality, water, weeds, pests, diseases, biodiversity and wildlife in an
agroecosystem.
cover crop
Filler Crops
The filler crops are the fruit species which are precocious in nature,
prolific bearer having short stature. These plants are planted with the purpose
to generate additional income from the land during the juvenile and initial
bearing stage of the main crops.
The plants generally hardy in nature and have shorter economic
life than main crop and planted within the main crop at a closer spacing. The
filler plants can be removed after the main crops attain effective canopy size
for yielding economically.
Guava, being a prolific and precious bearing fruit plant and dwarf
stature canopy can very well be fitted as second storey crop for additional
income at least in the initial years of the orchard. Papaya, Banana,
Pomegranate and Phalsa etc. are also used as filler crop.

49. It is a practice of ploughing in the green plant tissues grown
in the field or adding green plants with tender twigs or leaves from outside
and incorporating them into the soil for improving the physical structure
as well as fertility of the soil.
It can be defined as a practice of ploughing or turning into the
soil, undecomposed green plant tissues for the purpose of improving the
soil fertility.
The object of green manuring is to add an organic matter into
the soil and thus, enrich it with ‘N’ which is most important and deficient
nutrient.
Green Manuring

50. There are two types of green manuring
1. Green manuring in-situ: When green manure crops are grown in the
field itself either as a pure crop or as intercrop with the main crop and
buried in the same field, it is known as Green manuring In-situ. E.g.:
Sannhemp, Dhaicha, Pillipesara, Shervi, Urd, Mung, Cowpea, Berseem,
Senji, etc.
These crops are sown as:
i) Main crop,
ii) Inter row sown crop,
iii) On bare fallow, depending upon the soil and climatic conditions of the
region.
2. Green leaf manuring: It refers to turning into the soil green leaves
and tender green twigs collected from shrubs and tress grown on bunds,
waste lands and nearby forest area. E.g.: Glyricidia, wild Dhaicha,
Karanj.
Types of green manuring

51. Characteristics/desirable qualities of a good manuring
1. Yield a large quantity of green material within a short period.
2. Be quick growing especially in the beginning, so as to suppress
weeds.
3. Be succulent and have more leafy growth than woody growth,
so that its decomposition will be rapid.
4. Preferably is a legume, so that atm. ‘N’ will be fixed.
5. Have deep and fibrous root system so that it will absorb
nutrients from lower zone and add them to the surface soil and
also improve soil structure.
6. Be able to grow even on poor soils.

52. i) It adds organic matter to the soil and simulates activity of soil micro-
organisms.
ii) It improves the structure of the soil thereby improving the WHC,
decreasing run-off and erosion caused by rain.
iii) The G.M. takes nutrients from lower layers of the soil and adds to the
upper layer in which it is incorporated.
iv) It is a leguminous crop, it fixes ‘N’ from the atmosphere and adds to
the soil for being used by succeeding crop. Generally, about 2/3 of the
N is derived from the atmosphere and the rest from the soil.
v) It increases the availability of certain plant nutrients like P2O5, Ca, Mg
and Fe.
Advantages of green manuring

53. i) Under rain fed conditions, the germination and growth of succeeding
crop may be affected due to depletion of moisture for the growth and
decomposition of G.M.
ii) G.M. crop inclusive of decomposition period occupies the field least 75-
80 days which means a loss of one crop.
iii) Incidence of pests and diseases may increases if the G.M. is not kept
free from them.
Application of phosphatic fertilizers to G.M. crops
(leguminous) helps to increase the yield, for rapid growth of Rhizobia
and increase the ‘P’ availability to succeeding crop.
Disadvantages of green manuring

54. Irrigation
Definition: irrigation is artificial application of water to soil for the purpose to
access the crop production. It is supplied supplementary to water available from
rainfall & ground water.
Types of irrigation – (classification)
1. Flood
2. Surface
3. Sub surface
4. Sprinkle
5. Drip irrigation.
Surface irrigation:
Water is applied directly to the soil from channel located at upper ridge of
the field proper land preparation adequate control of water is necessary for uniform
distribution of water border. The entire field is divided into strips separated by low
ridge of the strip to lower in form of sheet guided by the low ridges. Border should
have uniform gentle slope in direction of irrigation. Each strip is independently by
turning stream of water at upper ridge. Suitability-suitable for close growing crops
some row crop & orchards under favorable soil & topographic condition. Not
recommended for extremely low or extremely high infiltration rate soils.

55. Advantage:
Easy construct & operate
Person can irrigation more compares to check basin.
If properly designed use uniform distribution & high water use efficiency.
Large streams can be effectively used.
If can provide excellent drainage (surface) if have proper outlet facility at the
lower end.
Disadvantages:
Required precise land leveling
Required large irrigation streams.
Check basin:
It is used in extreme condition of soil. It is well known method generally used for
heavy soils with low infiltration rate or high permeable soil like deep sand. Used
for orchards grain & folder production.
Disadvantages:
Labor requirement for land preparation is high.
Operation cost is more.
The ridges cause hindrances to implements by field operations.

56. Furrow method:
Furrow is preferably used for row crops like maize,
sugarcane, potato, groundnut & other vegetable crops. Water is applied in
small furrows betureoil the row crops. Water infiltrated into soil & spread
within the root zone. Large as well as small sized stream can be effectively
used for irrigation. It also acids for safe disposal of excess water i.e.
facilitates drainage. Only 1/5 to ½ of land surface is in contact with water
(wet). There by reducing the evaporation losses. Method is specially
situated to crops like maize which are sensitive to water in contact with
their strength. The cost of land preparation is reduced & there is no
wastage of land under field channels. In clay or deep clay soils shadow
furrow are made along with guiding ridge to take care of soil cracking
behavior such furrow are called corrugated furrow.

57. Subsurface irrigation:
Water is applied below the ground surface by maintaining artificial water
table at some depth depends upon the soil characteristic & root zone of
crop. Water moves through capillaries within soil to meet plant
requirement deep trenches & underground piper are the two ways for
sub-surface irrigation.
Adaptability: Soils having low W.H.C. soil having very high-high
infiltration rate. Soils surface method is not possible where sprinkle
method of irrigation proves to be expensive.
Advantage:
1) Evaporative losses are minimum.
Disadvantage:
1) Salty water can not be used.

58. Image References:
1. http://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_h/images/H-607FigA.gif
2. http://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_h/images/H-607FigD.gif
3.http://indianapublicmedia.org/focusonflowers/files/2011/01/contour-planting-edit.jpg
4. http://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_h/images/H-607FigB.gif
5. https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/-
UPIXKtoPoxI/T1wPPGVnGcI/186aBUFlgsc/s300/57386training2-thumb.jpg
6. https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/200x150/95/ee/9e/95ee9e7b1f53b02f375f852b24ef54be.jpg
7. http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/propagation/images/p19-2.gif
8. http://www.bonsaiprimer.com/creating/cutting/conifer.gif
9. http://mchsscience.weebly.com/uploads/5/6/4/7/5647812/388798987.jpg
10. http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/propagation/images/p21-1.gif
11. http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/propagation/images/p18.gif
12. http://www.gwinnettmastergardeners.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/02/BofD-66.jpg
13. http://generalhorticulture.tamu.edu/YouthAdventureProgram/AsexualPropagation/p90f6.gif
14. http://hort201.tamu.edu/YouthAdventureProgram/AsexualPropagation/p90f3.gif
15. http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-t9FmHF6cE50/U-
zG8MIdR2I/AAAAAAAAM3k/_3ZbfOcbJYU/s200/AirLayer.jpg

59. 16. http://www.pbcgov.com/newsroom/0212/_images/air-layering-illustration.jpg
17. http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-
aRFrsy8dJbo/TnvR0k29rJI/AAAAAAAAASk/1FKxcl_iNmk/s400/1-14.gif
18. http://static.sfdict.com/dictstatic/reference/graphics/eb/thumbnails/72168.gif
19. www.songonline.ca/images/barkgraft.gif
20.
http://cdn.instructables.com/F3O/7C4W/G91YCXYZ/F3O7C4WG91YCXYZ.LARG
E.gif
21. http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad224e/AD224E55.gif
22. http://www.quenovel.be/Horticole/hortiimages/p32/p7%202.jpg
23. http://biodiva.free.fr/spip2/IMG/cache-113x113/rubon49-113x113.jpg
24. http://www2.mcdaniel.edu/Biology/botf99/stems%26leaves/xstawb.gif
25. http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/propagation/images/p23-1.gif
26. https://www.easytogrowbulbs.com/images/customimages/mixedflowerbulbs.jpg
27. http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/propagation/images/p23-3.gif
Book Reference:
1. Plant propagation by M.K. Sadhu
Web References:
1. Agri info.in
2. ICAR e-courses