The document summarizes the morphology of flowering plants. It describes the main parts of a flowering plant - roots, stems, leaves, flowers and fruits. It discusses the different root systems and modifications of roots, stems and leaves. It also explains the structures and modifications of flowers including the calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium. Inflorescence patterns and symmetry of flowers are also summarized.
Introduction to Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants, Flower, Structure of Flower, Male Reproductive Part of Flower (Stamens), Development of Anther walls, Anther Walls, Microsporangium (Pollen Sac)
BIOLOGY STD 11
SANJAY SIDDHAPURA
HELPFUL FOR NEET/ GSET/NET EXAMINATION PREPARATION
ROOT, STEM, LEAVES, FLOWER, FRUIT, SEED, EMBRYO, FAMILY DISCRIPTION AVAILABLE IN THIS PRESENTATION
This is a three chapter review for the Agriculture Major Admission Test conducted by the College of Agriculture of Cavite State University, the topicsare: Plant Bilogy, Crop and Agriculture and basic Physiological processes of plants. Credits to all my sourceswhich include lecture notes from our faculty, online sources and books published in the Republic of the Philippines.
Introduction to Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants, Flower, Structure of Flower, Male Reproductive Part of Flower (Stamens), Development of Anther walls, Anther Walls, Microsporangium (Pollen Sac)
BIOLOGY STD 11
SANJAY SIDDHAPURA
HELPFUL FOR NEET/ GSET/NET EXAMINATION PREPARATION
ROOT, STEM, LEAVES, FLOWER, FRUIT, SEED, EMBRYO, FAMILY DISCRIPTION AVAILABLE IN THIS PRESENTATION
This is a three chapter review for the Agriculture Major Admission Test conducted by the College of Agriculture of Cavite State University, the topicsare: Plant Bilogy, Crop and Agriculture and basic Physiological processes of plants. Credits to all my sourceswhich include lecture notes from our faculty, online sources and books published in the Republic of the Philippines.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
2. Morphology is the name given to the science that deals with
the study of the form and structure of things. No matter
which plant you take, the morphology of a flowering plant
includes the roots, stem, leaves, flowers, and fruits.
3. Root System
The root is a brown, nongreen and underground part of a
plant. Root with their branches is collectively called a root
system. There are three types of the root system:
Taproot System
The taproot is mainly present in dicotyledonous plants. It
develops from the radicle of the germinating seed, along
with its primary roots and branches, giving rise to the
taproot system. Mustard seeds, mangoes, grams
4. The Fibrous root System
The fibrous root is mainly present in ferns and in all monocotyledonous plants. This
root develops from thin, moderately branching roots or a primary roots, growing
from the stem. The fibrous root system usually does not penetrate deep into the soil,
therefore, on full maturity, these roots look like a mat or a carpet on the floor. Wheat,
paddy, grass, carrots, onion, grass are a few examples of monocotyledonous plants
with the fibrous root system.
The Adventitious root System
The roots which originate from any part of the plant body other than the radicle is
called the adventitious root system. This root system is mainly present in all
monocotyledonous plants. In plants, the adventitious root system is used for various
purposes, like vegetative propagation, mechanical support, etc. Banyan tree,
maize, oak trees, horsetails are a few examples of monocotyledonous plants with the
adventitious root system.
5. Function of root :
•Absorption of water and mineral from soil
•Anchorage of the plant body
•Storing reserve food material.
•Synthesis of plant growth regulators.
6. Regions of Root
The three regions of a root are-
The Root Cap.
The region of maturation.
The region of Elongation.
Region of Meristamatic Activity
7. Region of meristematic activity : ◦
Cells of this region have the capability to divide.
◦The cells of this region are very small, thin-walled and with dense protoplasm.
•Region of elongation : ◦
Cells of this region are elongated and enlarged.
•Region of Maturation : ◦
This region has differentiated into matured cells.
◦Some of the epidermal cells of this region form thread-like root hairs, which absorbs water and
minerals from the soil.
8. Modifications of Root
•Roots are modified for support, storage of food, respiration.
•For support :
Prop roots in banyan tree, stilt roots in maize and sugarcane.
•For respiration:
pneumatophores in Rhizophora (Mangrove).
•For storage of food:
Fusiform (radish), Napiform (turnip), Conical (carrot).
9. Roots are modified for support, storage of food, respiration.
Modifications of Root
10. The Stem :
•Stem is the aerial part of the plant and develops from plumule of the embryo.
•It bears nodes and internodes.
•Bears bud, may be axillary or terminal
•Main function is to spreading branches bearing leaves, flower and fruits.
11. Modifications of Stem
•For food storage: Rhizome (ginger), Tuber (potato), Bulb (onion), Corm and
Colocasia).
•For support: Stem tendrils of watermelon, grapevine, and cucumber.
•For protection: Axillary buds of stem of citrus, Bougainvillea get modified
into pointed thorns. They protect the plants from animals.
•For vegetative propagation: Underground stems of grass, strawberry, lateral
branches of mint and jasmine.
•For assimilation of food: Flattened stem of opuntia contains chlorophyll and
performs photosynthesis.
12.
13. The Leaf
•Developed from shoot apical meristem, flattened, green structure.
•Manufacture the food by photosynthesis. It has bud in axil.
•A typical leaf has leaf base, petiole and lamina.
•Leaf attached to the stem by leaf base.
•May bear two small leaves like structure called stipules.
•Leaf base may swollen to form pulvinus.
•The structure that holds the leaf called petiole.
•The green expanded part of the leaf is called lamina or leaf blade.
15. Venation :
•The arrangement of veins and the veinlets in the lamina of leaf is termed as
venation.
•Veinlets form a network – reticulate venation. (dicot leaf)
•Vein runs parallel to each other – parallel venation. (monocot leaf)
16. Types of leaf :
•A leaf is said to be simple, when its lamina is entire or when incised, the
incisions do not touch the midrib.
•When the incisions of the lamina reach up to the midrib breaking it into a
number of leaflets, the leaf is called compound.
•
17. Bud present in the axil of petiole in both simple and compound leaf.
•Bud never present in the axil of the leaflets of compound leaf. ◦Pinnately
compound leaf: number of leaflets present in a common axis called rachis,
which represents the midrib of leaf.
◦Palmately compound leaves: leaflets are attached to the common point i.e. at
the top of the petiole.
18.
19. Phyllotaxy
•It is the pattern of arrangement of leaves on the stem of branch. ◦Alternate : a
single leaf arises from each node
◦Opposite : a pair of leaves arise at each node and lie opposite to each other.
◦Whorled : more than two leaves arise at a node and form a whorl.
20.
21.
22. Modifications of leaves
leaves are often modified to perform functions other than photosynthesis.
•Modified to tendril for climbing as in peas.
•Modified to spines for defense as in cacti.
•Fleshy leaves of onion store food.
•In Australian acacia, the leaves are small the short-lived. The petioles
expanded, become green and synthesize food.
•In insectivorous plant leaves are modified to trap insects e.g. pitcher plant,
Venus fly trap.
23. THE INFLORESCENCE :
The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis of stem.
•A flower is a modified shoot – ◦Apical meristem changes to floral meristem.
◦Internodes do not elongate and the axis gets condensed.
◦The apex produces different kinds of floral appendages laterally at successive nodes
instead of leaves.
•Racemose : the main axis continues to grow; the flowers are borne laterally in an
acropetal succession.
•Cymose : the main axis terminates in flower, hence limited to grow. The flowers are
borne in a basipetal order.
24. 1. Racemose :
Main axis is unlimited in growth-Radish, Mustard, Amaranthus.
2. Cymose :
Main axis is limited in growth-Cotton, Jasmine, Calotropis.
25. THE FLOWER
•Atypical flower has four different kinds of whorls arranged successively on the
swollen end of the stalk or pedicel called thalamus or receptacle. ◦The four whorls
are:-
•Calyx, corolla, Androecium and Gynoecium.
•Calyx and corolla are accessory organs.
•Androecium and Gynoecium are reproductive organs.
•In flower like lily, the calyx and corolla are indistinct and are called perianth.
•Bisexual: flower having both Androecium and Gynoecium.
•Unisexual: flower having either stamens or carpel.
26. Calyx
•It is the outermost whorl
•Each member called sepals.
•Sepals are green leaf like protect the flower in the bud
stage.
•Gamosepalous: sepals are united.
•Polysepalous: sepals are free.
27.
28. Corolla
•It is the second whorl of a flower.
•Each member called petal.
•Usually brightly colored to attract insect for pollination.
•Polypetalous: petals are free.
•Gamopetalous: petals are united or fused.
29. Androecium :
•It is the male sex organ of the flower.
•Composed of stamens.
•Each stamen consists of a stalk or filament and an anther.
•Each anther is usually bilobed and each lobe has two
chambers, pollen sac.
•Pollen grains are produced inside the pollen sacs.
•A sterile stamen is called staminode.
•Epipetalous: stamens attached to the petals. E.g. brinjal.
30. •Epiphyllous: stamens attached to the perianth. E.g. lily.
•Polyandrous: stamens are free.
•Monoadelphous: stamens united into one bunch or one
bundle e.g. China rose.
•Diadelphous: stamens fused to form two bundles as in
•Polyadelphous: stamens fused to form more than two
bundles as in citrus.
31. Gynoecium
•It is the female reproductive part of the flower.
•Members are called carpel.
•Each carpel has three parts namely stigma, style and ovary.
•Ovary is the enlarged basal part on which lies the
elongated tube, the style.
•The stigma usually at the tip of the style.
32. •Stigma is the receptive surface for pollen grain.
•Each ovary bears one or more ovules.
•Ovule attached to a flattened cushion-like placenta in the
ovary.
•When more than one carpel is present they may be:-
◦Apocarpous: all carpels are free. E.g. rose, lotus
◦Syncarpous: carpels fused. E.g. Tomato mustard.
33. Symmetry :
•Actinomorphic: radially symmetrical.
•Zygomorphic: bilaterally symmetrical.
•Asymmetrical: when a flower cannot be divided into two equal half in any
plane.
34. SYMMETRY OF FLOWERS
ymmetry of flower On the basis of no. of
floral appendages
On the basis of position of
calyx,corolla,
androecium with respect to ovary
Actinomorphic (radial
symmetry)
Trimerous Hypogynous (superior ovary)
Zygomorphic (bilateral
symmetry)
Tetramerous Perigynous (half inferior ovary)
Asymmetric (irregular) Pentamerous Epigynous (inferior ovary)
35. Pattern of flower :
•A flower may be trimerous, tetramerous or pentamerous when the floral
appendages are in multiple of 3, 4 or 5 respectively.
•Reduced leaf found at the base of the pedicel are called bract.
•Flowers which bears bract are said to be bracteates.
•Flowers without bract are said to be ebracteate.
36. Position of floral parts on thalamus :
•Hypogynous : ◦Gynoecium occupies the highest position.
◦Other whorls are present below the Gynoecium.
◦Ovary is said to be superior. E.g. mustard, China rose and brinjal.
•Epigynous : ◦The thalamus encloses the ovary.
◦Thalamus fused with ovary.
◦The other whorl arises above the ovary.
37. ◦Ovary is inferior. E.g. guava, cucumber, ray florets of sunflower.
Perigynous : ◦Ovary is said to be half inferior.
◦The Gynoecium situated in the centre.
◦Other whorls located on the rim of the thalamus almost at the same level. E.g.
plum, Rose, peach.
38.
39. Aestivation :
the mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in the floral
bud with respect to the other members of the same whorl is
known as aestivation.
•Valvate :
sepals or petals in a whorl just touch one another at the
margin, without overlapping. E.g. Calotropis.
40. •Twisted :
one margin of the appendage overlaps that of the next one and
so on. E.g. china rose.
•Imbricate :
the margin of sepals or petals overlap one another but not in any
particular direction as in Cassia and gulmohur.
•Vexillary : The large petal (standard) overlaps the two lateral
petals (wings) which in turn overlap the two smallest anterior
petals (keel).
41.
42. Types of Placentation :
.
Placentation : arrangement of ovules within the
ovary is known as Placentation.
•Marginal: Placenta forms a ridge along the
ventral suture of ovary.
•Axile: Margins of carpels fuse to form central
axis.
43. •Parietal:
Ovules develop on inner wall of ovary.
•Free central:
Ovules borne on central axis, lacking septa.
•Basal:
Placenta develops at the base of ovary.
44. The fruit :
After fertilization, the mature ovary develops into
fruit. The parthenocarpicfruits are formed from
ovary without fertilization.
45. THE FRUIT :
•Generally fruits consist of a wall or pericarp and seeds.
•Pericarp may be dry or fleshy. Pericarp differentiated into – ◦Outer
epicarp,◦Middle mesocarp. ◦Inner endocarp.
•Fruit developed from monocarpellary superior ovary and are one seeded. Such
fruit is said to be drupe as in mango and coconut.
•Edible part of the mango is mesocarp.
•Mesocarp of coconut is fibrous.
46.
47. THE SEED :
•After fertilization ovules developed into seed.
•A seed is made of seed coat and embryo.
•The embryo is made up of ◦A radicle
◦An embryonal axis
◦One or two cotyledons.
48. Structure of dicotyledonous seed :
•Outer most covering of seed is seed coat.
•Seed coat has – ◦Outer testa
◦Inner tegmen.
•The hilum is a scar on the seed coat, the point of attachment of developing
seed with the fruit.
•Above the hilum is a small pore called the micropyle.
•Embryo present inside the seed coat, consists of - ◦An embryonal axis.
◦Two cotyledons
49. •Cotyledons are fleshy and store reserve food.
•At the two end of embryonal axis are present the radicle and the plumule.
•In some seed endosperm store the reserve food as in castor.
•Mature seed without endosperm called non-albuminous seed or non-
endospermous as in bean, gram and pea.
52. Structure of monocotyledonous Seed :
•Generally monocotyledonous seeds are endospermic, orchids are non-
endospermic.
•In seeds of cereals such as maize, the seed coat is fused with the fruit wall.
•The outer covering of separates the embryo by a proteinous layer called
aleurone layer.
•Embryo is small and located one side of the endosperm and consists of ◦One
large shield shaped cotyledon known as scutellum.
◦A short axis with radicle and plumule.
◦Plumule covered by a sheath called coleoptile.
◦Radicle covered by a sheath called coleorhiza.
