Constitutes 20 – 40 % of the body’s white blood cell and 99 % cells in the lymph.
Circulate continuously in the blood and lymph and migrates into the tissue spaces.
On the basis of function and cell membrane component, mainly 3 types :- B cells, T cells and NK (Natural killer cells)
Identify the organs of primary and secondary immune system- lymphoid organs, Know the functions of lymphoid organs, Understand the importance of lymphoid organs and Lymphatic circulatory system
Constitutes 20 – 40 % of the body’s white blood cell and 99 % cells in the lymph.
Circulate continuously in the blood and lymph and migrates into the tissue spaces.
On the basis of function and cell membrane component, mainly 3 types :- B cells, T cells and NK (Natural killer cells)
Identify the organs of primary and secondary immune system- lymphoid organs, Know the functions of lymphoid organs, Understand the importance of lymphoid organs and Lymphatic circulatory system
Lymphoid organs concerned with development and differentiation of lymphocyte.gives specific and non specific immune response against pathogen enters into the body .Lymphoid organs are classified into three categories ;primary lymphoid organs e.g.thymus and bone marrow (involved in lymphocyte development ):secondary lymphoid organs e.g.Lymph nodes ,Spleen,MALT(involved in Ag and lymphocyte interaction and elimination of pathogen).Tertiary lymphoid organs e.g.CALT(import lymphocyte during inflammation ).
Lymphoid organs concerned with development and differentiation of lymphocyte.gives specific and non specific immune response against pathogen enters into the body .Lymphoid organs are classified into three categories ;primary lymphoid organs e.g.thymus and bone marrow (involved in lymphocyte development ):secondary lymphoid organs e.g.Lymph nodes ,Spleen,MALT(involved in Ag and lymphocyte interaction and elimination of pathogen).Tertiary lymphoid organs e.g.CALT(import lymphocyte during inflammation ).
Immunology is the study of the immune system and how it protects us from infection and disease123. It is a branch of biology and medicine2. Are you looking for something specific about immunology?
Leukocytes constitute the cellular components of the innate and adaptive immune system and are critical for host defense. These cells mediate acute and chronic inflammation, modulate immune responses, and protect the host against numerous pathogens.
Disorders affecting leukocytes can be divided broadly into malignant disorders (tumors of leukocytes or their progenitors) and non-malignant disorders.
The malignant disorders are uncommon but clinically important entities
Non- malignant leukocyte disorders can involve any any of the leukocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, B cells, T cells, and natural killer cells)
but the disorders of greatest clinical relevance affect neutrophils; these will be our major focus.
Types of immune cells
∆Lymphoid cells
-lymphocytes
constitute 20%–40% of the body’s white blood cells and 99% of the cells in the lymph
continually circulate in the blood and lymph and are capable of migrating into the tissue spaces and lymphoid organs
lymphocytes enlarge into 15 µm-diameter blast cells, called lymphoblasts; these cells have a higher cytoplasm : nucleus ratio and more organellar complexity than small lymphocytes.
Lymphoblasts proliferate and eventually differentiate into-
effector cells or into
memory cells.
* B-lymphocytes
*T-lymphocytes
* Natural killer cells
∆mononuclear phagocytes
The mononuclear phagocytic system consists of monocytes circulating in the blood and macrophages in the tissues.
-macrophages
-monocytes
∆granulocytes cells
Granulocytes are at the front lines of attack during an immune response and are considered part of the innate immune system.
Granulocytes are white blood cells (leukocytes) that are classified as neutrophils, basophils, mast cells, or eosinophils on the basis of differences in cellular morphology and the staining of their characteristic cytoplasmic granules
The cytoplasm of all granulocytes is replete with granules that are released in response to contact with pathogens.
These granules contain a variety of proteins with distinct functions:
Some damage pathogens directly;
some regulate trafficking and activity of other white blood cells, including lymphocytes
-neutrophills
-basophils
-eosinophils
-dendritic cells
-mast cells
The lymphatic system is a network of tissues and organs that help rid the body of toxins, waste and other unwanted materials. The primary function of the lymphatic system is to transport lymph, a fluid containing infection-fighting white blood cells, throughout the body.
Immune System - The immune system is a complex network of cells and proteins that defends the body against infection.
The immune system keeps a record of every microbe it has ever defeated so it can recognize and destroy the microbe quickly if it enters the body again.
Abnormalities of the immune system can lead to allergic disease, immunodeficiencies and autoimmune disorders.
Antigen - Any factors or agents that can enter the body and create an immune response are called antigen.
Formation of immune cells - Immune cells are produced by hematopoietic stem cell in bone marrow
Hematopoietic stem cells are self-renewing and reside in the medulla of the bone ( bone marrow ).
HSCs are divided into two main lineages, lymphoid progenitor cells or myeloid progenitor cells.
Myeloid cells - Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Basophil, Mast cells, Monocyte, Macrophage, Dendritic Cell
Lymphoid cells - B Lymphocytes,
T Lymphocyte, NK Cells
Antigen presenting cells - Professional antigen presenting
cells : Macrophage, Dendritic cell, B Lymphocyte
Non professional antigen presenting cell: Non-professional antigen presenting cells include all nucleated cell types in the body.
Proteins of immune system - Set of serum proteins that co-operate with both Innate and adaptive immune system to eliminate blood and tissue pathogen.
Organs of immune cells - Spleen, Lymph node, Tonsils , MALT, Bone marrow, Thymus
Types of immunity -
Innate Immunity: Innate immune response is in born and is the first line of defense against pathogen
Adaptive immunity: Antigenic specificity. It have immunological memory
Immune Receptors - It is a specialized structures found in the cell membrane. They are mainly composed of proteins, which bind to pathogens and causes a response in immune system
Immunology is the study of the immune system and is a very important branch of the medical and biological sciences. The immune system protects us from infection through
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
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Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
2. Content
• Introduction
• Cells of immune system
• Hematopoiesis
• Phagocytic cells
• Granulocytes
• Lymphocytes
• Conclusion
3. Introduction
The immune system is spread throughout the body
and involves many types of cells, organs, proteins,
and tissues. Crucially, it can distinguish our tissue
from foreign tissue — self from non-self. Dead and
faulty cells are also recognized and cleared away by
the immune system.
4. Cells of immune system
• WBCs are the principle cells of immune system
formed hematopoietic stem cell by the process of
hematopoiesis. Hematopoiesis occurs in yolk sac
during 1st week of gestation. After 3rd month of
gestation, hematopoiesis occurs in liver and spleen
of fetus and after birth, it occurs in bone marrow.
5. Hematopoiesis
Hematopoiesis is the process by which mature blood
elements of all lineages are derived from a common
pluripotent stem cell.
6.
7. Monocyte
Structure
• Mono nuclear phagocytic cells
• It measures 12 - 15 micro meter
• Single lobed kidney shaped nucleus
• It accounts 2-8% of leukocytes
Life span
• Circulates in blood for 8 hours them moves
to specialized tissue to form macrophage
Function
• Helps in antigen processing and presenting
• Releases cytotoxins
• Cytotoxicity
8. Macrophage
• Monocyte migrates to tissue and differentiate to
form macrophage. During this process it includes
some changes
1. Cells enlarge to 5-10 folds
2. Intracellular granules increases in number and
complexity
3. Increase phagocytic ability
4. Produces higher level of hydrolysis enzyme &
cytokine
Function
• Phagocytosis
• Antigen presentation to The cell
• Secretion of IL-1 ,IL-6, IL-12, TNF -alpha to activate
inflammatory response
9. Neutrophils
Structure
• It is 11-14µm in diameter with multilobed nucleus with
granules in cytoplasm.
• It constitutes 50-70 % of total circulating WBC and remains
for 7-8 hours in blood and then migrates to tissues
• Life span is 3-4 days.
• Also known as polymorphonuclear (PMN) lymphocytes
Function
• Phagocytic role in acute inflammatory response.
• It is the first immune cell to responds in inflammation.
• It express higher levels of defensins than macrophages
10. Basophil
Structure
• It constitutes only 1% of leukocytes. They are
circulating cells
• Nucleus is bilobed or S shaped
• It contains large, irregular basophic granules
• They are non phagocytic cells
• Granules contain histamine, heparin, serotonin, and
other hydrolysis enzyme
Function
• It plays a role in immunity against parasites
• Provide anaphylactic and atope allergic reaction
• On degranulation release histamine which cause
adverse symptoms of allergy
11. Eosinophil
Structure
• Form small portion of peripheral blood 1-5%
• They are bilobed and granulated cytoplasm
• They are mobile and can move to the site of action.
• They phagocytose poorly but degranulate promptly
in the presence of chemotactic factors and when
bound Ig G & Ig E is crossed linked by antigen.
Function
• Granules contain various hydrolysis enzymes that kill
parasites which are too large to be phagocytosed by
neutrophils
• Provide allergic inflamation
12. Dendritic cells
Structure
• Large, motile, weakly phagocytic, antigen
presenting cells
• That possess several elongated pseudopodia or
processes that resembles dendrites of nerve cell
• They comprise about 1%of the cell in secondary
lymphoid organs and these cells are found in
different location
Function
• They have major function of presentation of
antigen toTHcells
• They express high levels of class II MHC molecules
• Very little role in phagocytosis
13. Lymphocytes
• Lymphocytes are small, round cells found in peripheral blood, lymph,
lymph nodes, lymphoid organs and in tissues.
• Lymphocytes represent 20-45% of total cells in peripheral blood and
99% of total cells in lymph and lymph node.
• According to size lymphocytes are divided into small (5-8µm),
medium (8-12µm) and large (12-15µm).
• Depending on life span lymphocytes are classified into short lived (2
weeks) and long lived (3 years or more or even lifelong).
• Broadly lymphocytes are divided into three sub-populations, on the
basis of function and cell membrane components.
14. B lymphocyte
• The name B-cell is derived from its site
of maturation and differentiation in
Bursa of fabricius in Birds. In adult
human B- cell originates and mature in
Bone marrow.
• Morphologically B- cells are
indistinguishable from T-cells.
• B-cells are identified by their surface
protein ie. Immunoglobulin or antibody
which serves as receptor for antigen.
15. Surface receptors on B cell
• B220 (CD45): marker for B-cells and their precursor
• MHC-II: permits B-cells to function as APC.
• CR1 (CD35) and CR2 (CD21): complement receptor
• FcγRII (CD32): receptor for IgG antibody
• CD40: interacts with CD40 ligands on surface of TH cells.
• B7-1 (CD80) and B7-2 (CD86): interacts with CD28 and CTLA-4 on TH cells.
16. Functions of B lymphocyte
• Antibody production against specific target antigen
• acts as APC and present antigen to The cell
• provides signal for T cell activation
17. T lymphocyte
• T-cells originate in bone marrow and mature and
differentiate in thymus. The name T- cells is
derived from its site of maturation.
• All T-cells contains T- cell receptor (TCR) on its
surface. TCR is specific and recognize MHC bound
antigen.
• All T- cells expresses an antigen binding TCR and
CD2 and CD3 glycoprotein on their cell
membrane.
• Most of the T-cells are distinguished on the basis
of CD4 and CD8 glycoprotein receptor on their
cell membrane.
18. Sub population of T cell
T helper cells
• TH cells are activated by recognition of antigen on MHC-II on
APCs. Ie. MHC-II restricted.
• When antigen binds on TCR of CD+ T –cells, it is activated and
divides into memory cell and effector cells. Effector TH cells
secretes various cytokines which helps in B-cell activation for
production of antibodies.
T cytotoxic cells
• Tc cells are activated by recognition of antigen on MHC-I on
altered self cell such as tumor cell or virus infected cells.. Ie.
They are MHC-I restricted.
• When antigen binds on TCR of CD8+ cells, it is activated and
divides into clones of memory cell and effectors cells. Effector
Tc cells is known as cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTL) which kills
virus infected cell or tumor cells.
19.
20. T suppressed cells
• Ts-cells helps to suppress humoral and cell mediated immunity.
Functions
• Helps B- cell maturation, expression and antibody production
• Helps in recruitment and activation of mononuclear phagocytic cells.
• Helps in recruitment and activation of specialized cytotoxic T- cells (TCL)
in antiviral response.
• Secretes cytokines which is responsible for growth and differentiation of
T- cells, monocytes, macrophages etc
• Helps in regulation of immune reactions.
21. Natural killer cells
• Natural Killer (NK) cells are large
granular lymphocytes (LGL)
present in small proportion in
spleen and peripheral blood.
• Unlike T-cell and B-cell, NK cell
lacks specific antigen receptor.
• They are called as natural killer
cell because they do not require
activation in order to kill tumor
cells or virus infected cells.
22. functions of NK cells:
• Provide antitumor immunity
• Provide antiviral immunity
• provide antibody dependent cell mediated
cytotoxicity (ADCC).
• secretes cytokines
23. Conclusion
• Immune system possesses diverse cells and organs to
confer immunity to the body.
• The whole system is an intricate network of these
cells and organs
• Hematopoiesis generates the various blood cells
required by the body and the location of the
hematopoiesis varies initially but finally becomes
constant with age and bone marrow becomes the key
location for the process.
