Carbohydrates are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of polyhydric alcohols that serve several important functions in the body. They are the main sources of energy, used for energy storage as glycogen or starch, and structural components of cells and tissues. Carbohydrates exist as monomers, dimers, and polymers and show various types of isomers. Important biomolecules derived from carbohydrates include glycosaminoglycans, glycoproteins, and blood group antigens. Diseases and medical treatments are related to carbohydrates, such as the use of cardiac glycosides for heart failure and heparin's role as an anticoagulant.
Polysaccharides - Biochemistry for Msc StudentsKEVENLIAM
This note is based on polysaccharides and glycoprotein which is useful for MSc zoology students. All the points including the structure is being added.
This document discusses carbohydrate chemistry and digestion. It defines carbohydrates and describes their functions in the body. It outlines the nomenclature of monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Key monosaccharides like glucose, fructose and galactose are explained. Important disaccharides like sucrose, lactose and maltose are defined. Polysaccharides discussed include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and heteroglycans. The process of carbohydrate digestion by salivary and pancreatic amylases and intestinal disaccharide-hydrolyzing enzymes is summarized. Lactose intolerance is also briefly explained, along with monosaccharide absorption mechanisms.
Carbohydrates classification, biochemical properties, isomerism and qualitati...AnjaliKR3
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as a chief source of energy. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer units. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose are composed of two monosaccharide units. Polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, and cellulose are polymers of many monosaccharide units. Carbohydrates play important structural and energy-related roles in living organisms.
Lec 5 level 3-de(chemistry of carbohydrates)dream10f
This document discusses carbohydrates, including their definition, functions, nomenclature, classification, and digestion. Key points include:
- Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and serve as the main energy source. They include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
- Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are two monosaccharides bonded together, such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides like starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
- Carbohydrates are digested into monosaccharides in the mouth, stomach and small intestine by
This document provides an overview of carbohydrates including their structure, classification, properties and functions. It defines carbohydrates as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones and discusses their general formula. It then classifies carbohydrates into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides and provides examples of each. Key polysaccharides like starch, glycogen and cellulose are described in more detail. The document also covers the optical properties, biological importance and dietary roles of carbohydrates.
This document provides information on biological molecules. It begins by defining biomolecules as molecules involved in living organisms that are typically made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and other elements. The main types of biomolecules discussed are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and water. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, disaccharides like sucrose, and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose and glycogen. Lipids include fats, waxes, phospholipids, glycolipids and sterols. The properties of water that allow it to act as the universal solvent in living systems are also summarized.
Millions of complex chemical reactions are going on in the human body at any given time. The balance of the endocrine system, which controls hormone levels, is one example; how the brain processes information from nerves and how signals are relayed from place to place is another. By studying and understanding these highly complex reactions, medical biochemists have found ways to better fight infection and disease on the molecular level. Much of the field is dedicated to research. The time experts spend studying samples and creating reactions has led to a number of breakthroughs in heath care and disease management, and it seems likely that this field will be very much “in demand” for years to come.
Carbohydrates : carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis. A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen-oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula (CH2O)n. Simple carbohydrates are also known as "Sugars" or "Saccharides".
Depending upon the composition and complexity, carbohydrates are divided into four groups:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Oligosaccharides
4. Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides: are simplest sugars, or the compounds which possess a free aldehyde (CHO) or ketone (C=O) group and two or more hydroxyl (OH) groups. They are simplest sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed further into smaller units. Examples of monosaccharides include:
1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactose
Disaccharides: Those sugars which yield two molecules of the same or different molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis are called Disaccharides. Three most common disaccharides of biological importance are:
1. Maltose
2. Lactose
3. Sucrose
Oligosaccharides: are compound sugars that yield more than two and less than ten molecules of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Depending upon the number of monosaccharides units present in them oligosaccharides can be classified as Trisaccharides, Tetrasaccharides, Pentasaccharides and so on.
Polysaccharides: polysaccharides are polymers containing ten or more monosaccharides units attached together. Polysaccharides are also known as Glycans. Polysaccharides are further classified into:
1. Homopolysaccharides: are also known as homoglycans. Homopolysaccharides are polymer of same monosaccharide units. Example includes:
1. Starch
2. Glycogen
3. Cellulose
4. Inulin
5. Dextrin
6. Dextran
7. Chitin
Heteropolysaccharides: heteropolysaccharides are polysaccharides that contains different types of monosaccharides. Heteropolysaccharides can be classified as: GAG, AGAR, AGAROSE, PECTIN.
Polysaccharides - Biochemistry for Msc StudentsKEVENLIAM
This note is based on polysaccharides and glycoprotein which is useful for MSc zoology students. All the points including the structure is being added.
This document discusses carbohydrate chemistry and digestion. It defines carbohydrates and describes their functions in the body. It outlines the nomenclature of monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Key monosaccharides like glucose, fructose and galactose are explained. Important disaccharides like sucrose, lactose and maltose are defined. Polysaccharides discussed include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and heteroglycans. The process of carbohydrate digestion by salivary and pancreatic amylases and intestinal disaccharide-hydrolyzing enzymes is summarized. Lactose intolerance is also briefly explained, along with monosaccharide absorption mechanisms.
Carbohydrates classification, biochemical properties, isomerism and qualitati...AnjaliKR3
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as a chief source of energy. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer units. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose are composed of two monosaccharide units. Polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, and cellulose are polymers of many monosaccharide units. Carbohydrates play important structural and energy-related roles in living organisms.
Lec 5 level 3-de(chemistry of carbohydrates)dream10f
This document discusses carbohydrates, including their definition, functions, nomenclature, classification, and digestion. Key points include:
- Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and serve as the main energy source. They include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
- Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are two monosaccharides bonded together, such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides like starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
- Carbohydrates are digested into monosaccharides in the mouth, stomach and small intestine by
This document provides an overview of carbohydrates including their structure, classification, properties and functions. It defines carbohydrates as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones and discusses their general formula. It then classifies carbohydrates into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides and provides examples of each. Key polysaccharides like starch, glycogen and cellulose are described in more detail. The document also covers the optical properties, biological importance and dietary roles of carbohydrates.
This document provides information on biological molecules. It begins by defining biomolecules as molecules involved in living organisms that are typically made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and other elements. The main types of biomolecules discussed are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and water. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, disaccharides like sucrose, and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose and glycogen. Lipids include fats, waxes, phospholipids, glycolipids and sterols. The properties of water that allow it to act as the universal solvent in living systems are also summarized.
Millions of complex chemical reactions are going on in the human body at any given time. The balance of the endocrine system, which controls hormone levels, is one example; how the brain processes information from nerves and how signals are relayed from place to place is another. By studying and understanding these highly complex reactions, medical biochemists have found ways to better fight infection and disease on the molecular level. Much of the field is dedicated to research. The time experts spend studying samples and creating reactions has led to a number of breakthroughs in heath care and disease management, and it seems likely that this field will be very much “in demand” for years to come.
Carbohydrates : carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis. A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen-oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula (CH2O)n. Simple carbohydrates are also known as "Sugars" or "Saccharides".
Depending upon the composition and complexity, carbohydrates are divided into four groups:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Oligosaccharides
4. Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides: are simplest sugars, or the compounds which possess a free aldehyde (CHO) or ketone (C=O) group and two or more hydroxyl (OH) groups. They are simplest sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed further into smaller units. Examples of monosaccharides include:
1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactose
Disaccharides: Those sugars which yield two molecules of the same or different molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis are called Disaccharides. Three most common disaccharides of biological importance are:
1. Maltose
2. Lactose
3. Sucrose
Oligosaccharides: are compound sugars that yield more than two and less than ten molecules of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Depending upon the number of monosaccharides units present in them oligosaccharides can be classified as Trisaccharides, Tetrasaccharides, Pentasaccharides and so on.
Polysaccharides: polysaccharides are polymers containing ten or more monosaccharides units attached together. Polysaccharides are also known as Glycans. Polysaccharides are further classified into:
1. Homopolysaccharides: are also known as homoglycans. Homopolysaccharides are polymer of same monosaccharide units. Example includes:
1. Starch
2. Glycogen
3. Cellulose
4. Inulin
5. Dextrin
6. Dextran
7. Chitin
Heteropolysaccharides: heteropolysaccharides are polysaccharides that contains different types of monosaccharides. Heteropolysaccharides can be classified as: GAG, AGAR, AGAROSE, PECTIN.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate chemistry. It begins by classifying carbohydrates as simple or complex, and as reducing or non-reducing. Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides are introduced. Glucose is discussed as a key monosaccharide, with its preparation from sucrose and starch. Structural features of glucose such as cyclic and linear forms are described. Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are presented as important disaccharides. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are highlighted as significant polysaccharides. Stereoisomers including anomers are defined. The biological importance of carbohydrates as an energy source and in structural roles is summarized. Common carbohydrate chemical
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth and serve important functions in living organisms. They include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, oligosaccharides like sucrose and lactose, and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Monosaccharides are either aldoses or ketoses and commonly exist as cyclic structures with α and β anomers. Glycosidic bonds link monosaccharides into oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, which serve structural roles like cellulose and chitin or storage roles like starch and glycogen. Carbohydrates play key roles through their diverse structures and functions.
The document summarizes key biomolecules and concepts. It discusses carbohydrates including monosaccharides (glucose, fructose), disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), and polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, glycogen). It also discusses protein structure (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary), enzymes, vitamins, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), and hormones. Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids are described as important macromolecules that make up biomolecules.
This document discusses different types of polysaccharides. It defines polysaccharides as macromolecules made of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. Polysaccharides are divided into homo-polysaccharides containing a single type of monosaccharide (e.g. starch, glycogen) and hetero-polysaccharides containing multiple types (e.g. peptidoglycan, heparin). Key homo-polysaccharides discussed are starch, glycogen, cellulose, and agar. Starch and glycogen function as energy storage, while cellulose provides structure. Key hetero-polysaccharides discussed are mucopolysaccharides, proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and peptidoglycan.
Any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living tissues and including sugars, starch, and cellulose. They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically can be broken down to release energy in the animal body.
Chemically, carbohydrates are defined as “optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce units of such type on hydrolysis”.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their complexity. Monosaccharides include simple sugars like glucose and fructose. Oligosaccharides contain 2-10 monosaccharide units and include disaccharides like sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Carbohydrates serve important functions like energy storage, structure, and participating in biological processes as components of other biomolecules.
Carbohydrates have several important functions in the body. They can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their size. Glucose is an important monosaccharide that serves as the body's primary source of energy. Glycoproteins and glycosaminoglycans are complex carbohydrates that play structural and functional roles throughout the body. Carbohydrate metabolism is essential for health, and diseases like diabetes occur when carbohydrate metabolism is disrupted.
Carbohydrates are essential biomolecules made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include monosaccharides (simple sugars), disaccharides (two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds), and polysaccharides (long chains of monosaccharides). Monosaccharides can further be classified as reducing or non-reducing sugars. Carbohydrates serve important functions as energy sources, structural components, and in various metabolic processes in living organisms.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth and serve important functions in living organisms. They include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, oligosaccharides like sucrose and lactose, and polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin. Monosaccharides are aldoses or ketoses that exist as cyclic or linear structures. Polysaccharides function as energy storage molecules like starch and glycogen or provide structure to plant cell walls and insect exoskeletons like cellulose and chitin. Carbohydrates undergo oxidation reactions and form glycosidic bonds between monosaccharide units.
This document discusses carbohydrates including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It explains that monosaccharides have formulas of C5H10O5 or C6H12O6 and exist as pentoses or hexoses like glucose. Monosaccharides can form ring structures and optical isomers. Disaccharides like sucrose form from monosaccharide condensation, while polysaccharides like starch are made of many monosaccharide units and provide structure or energy storage. Polysaccharides serve important functions in the body including energy provision, energy storage as glycogen, and as dietary fiber.
Classification of Carbohydrate - Part-II.pptxABHIJIT BHOYAR
1. Polysaccharides are carbohydrates made of long chains of monosaccharides bonded together. They are classified as either homopolysaccharides or heteropolysaccharides.
2. Important homopolysaccharides include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and inulin. Starch is the plant storage carbohydrate made of amylose and amylopectin. Glycogen serves the same function in animals. Cellulose provides structure to plant cell walls.
3. Heteropolysaccharides contain different sugar units and include mucopolysaccharides. Important examples are hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, heparin, and keratin sulfate, which are components of connective tissue.
This document provides an overview of the key biomolecules found within cells, including their structure and functions. It discusses the roles of water, carbohydrates like glucose and glycogen, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. These biomolecules are involved in essential cellular processes like metabolism, protein synthesis, and storage of genetic information. The document also examines how biomolecules interact and are organized within cells and cellular structures.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, or compounds derived from their hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates are also known as sugars.
Carbohydrates have the general formula C(H2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms.
Carbohydrates are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The term “sugar” is applied to carbohydrates that are soluble in water and sweet to taste.
Carbohydrates metabolism and lipids biosynthesis and oxidationDr Kirpa Ram Jangra
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as an important energy source. They typically break down to release energy through metabolism. The document discusses carbohydrate metabolism, including glycolysis, which involves breaking glucose down into pyruvate or lactic acid. Glycolysis yields ATP and NADH and is divided into preparatory and energy-yielding phases involving 10 steps that phosphorylate, isomerize, and break down glucose.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones that yield these derivatives upon hydrolysis. They are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monosaccharide units. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose and galactose. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharide units and include sucrose, lactose and maltose. Polysaccharides like starch, glycogen and cellulose are made of many glucose units and act as energy stores. Carbohydrates provide energy, aid digestion, and support brain function.
Carbohydrates can be broadly classified into 3 types: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be further broken down, while polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides. Carbohydrates serve important structural and energy storage functions in living organisms. They undergo various types of isomerism and chemical reactions important for their identification and analysis.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules on Earth. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are five major classifications of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and nucleotides. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose are formed through the joining of two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides allow for large storage of glucose and include starch, glycogen, and dietary fiber such as cellulose. Carbohydrates have many functions including energy storage, structure, and components of proteins.
This document discusses the structure and classification of carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates and describing their general structure as (CH2O)n. Carbohydrates are then classified into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides based on the number of monosaccharide units they contain. Key polysaccharides like cellulose, chitin, starch, and glycogen are described. The document also covers carbohydrate isomers, functions of carbohydrates, and important heteropolysaccharides including glycosaminoglycans.
some impor monosaccharide for BS students full notes.pptxSidraMahmood15
The monosaccharide consists of single unit which contains carbon chain of three to six carbon. They can combine through glycosidic bonds to form larger carbohydrates. The main function of monosaccharide is to produce and store energy. Glucose and fructose are the most available monosaccharide in nature.
- Carbohydrates provide energy and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Glucose is a primary carbohydrate that our bodies use for energy.
- Carbohydrates exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. Polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharide units.
- Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides that provide energy storage or structural support
Histololgy of Female Reproductive System.pptxAyeshaZaid1
Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate chemistry. It begins by classifying carbohydrates as simple or complex, and as reducing or non-reducing. Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides are introduced. Glucose is discussed as a key monosaccharide, with its preparation from sucrose and starch. Structural features of glucose such as cyclic and linear forms are described. Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are presented as important disaccharides. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are highlighted as significant polysaccharides. Stereoisomers including anomers are defined. The biological importance of carbohydrates as an energy source and in structural roles is summarized. Common carbohydrate chemical
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth and serve important functions in living organisms. They include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, oligosaccharides like sucrose and lactose, and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Monosaccharides are either aldoses or ketoses and commonly exist as cyclic structures with α and β anomers. Glycosidic bonds link monosaccharides into oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, which serve structural roles like cellulose and chitin or storage roles like starch and glycogen. Carbohydrates play key roles through their diverse structures and functions.
The document summarizes key biomolecules and concepts. It discusses carbohydrates including monosaccharides (glucose, fructose), disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), and polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, glycogen). It also discusses protein structure (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary), enzymes, vitamins, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), and hormones. Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids are described as important macromolecules that make up biomolecules.
This document discusses different types of polysaccharides. It defines polysaccharides as macromolecules made of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. Polysaccharides are divided into homo-polysaccharides containing a single type of monosaccharide (e.g. starch, glycogen) and hetero-polysaccharides containing multiple types (e.g. peptidoglycan, heparin). Key homo-polysaccharides discussed are starch, glycogen, cellulose, and agar. Starch and glycogen function as energy storage, while cellulose provides structure. Key hetero-polysaccharides discussed are mucopolysaccharides, proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and peptidoglycan.
Any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living tissues and including sugars, starch, and cellulose. They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically can be broken down to release energy in the animal body.
Chemically, carbohydrates are defined as “optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce units of such type on hydrolysis”.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their complexity. Monosaccharides include simple sugars like glucose and fructose. Oligosaccharides contain 2-10 monosaccharide units and include disaccharides like sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Carbohydrates serve important functions like energy storage, structure, and participating in biological processes as components of other biomolecules.
Carbohydrates have several important functions in the body. They can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their size. Glucose is an important monosaccharide that serves as the body's primary source of energy. Glycoproteins and glycosaminoglycans are complex carbohydrates that play structural and functional roles throughout the body. Carbohydrate metabolism is essential for health, and diseases like diabetes occur when carbohydrate metabolism is disrupted.
Carbohydrates are essential biomolecules made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include monosaccharides (simple sugars), disaccharides (two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds), and polysaccharides (long chains of monosaccharides). Monosaccharides can further be classified as reducing or non-reducing sugars. Carbohydrates serve important functions as energy sources, structural components, and in various metabolic processes in living organisms.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth and serve important functions in living organisms. They include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, oligosaccharides like sucrose and lactose, and polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin. Monosaccharides are aldoses or ketoses that exist as cyclic or linear structures. Polysaccharides function as energy storage molecules like starch and glycogen or provide structure to plant cell walls and insect exoskeletons like cellulose and chitin. Carbohydrates undergo oxidation reactions and form glycosidic bonds between monosaccharide units.
This document discusses carbohydrates including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It explains that monosaccharides have formulas of C5H10O5 or C6H12O6 and exist as pentoses or hexoses like glucose. Monosaccharides can form ring structures and optical isomers. Disaccharides like sucrose form from monosaccharide condensation, while polysaccharides like starch are made of many monosaccharide units and provide structure or energy storage. Polysaccharides serve important functions in the body including energy provision, energy storage as glycogen, and as dietary fiber.
Classification of Carbohydrate - Part-II.pptxABHIJIT BHOYAR
1. Polysaccharides are carbohydrates made of long chains of monosaccharides bonded together. They are classified as either homopolysaccharides or heteropolysaccharides.
2. Important homopolysaccharides include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and inulin. Starch is the plant storage carbohydrate made of amylose and amylopectin. Glycogen serves the same function in animals. Cellulose provides structure to plant cell walls.
3. Heteropolysaccharides contain different sugar units and include mucopolysaccharides. Important examples are hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, heparin, and keratin sulfate, which are components of connective tissue.
This document provides an overview of the key biomolecules found within cells, including their structure and functions. It discusses the roles of water, carbohydrates like glucose and glycogen, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. These biomolecules are involved in essential cellular processes like metabolism, protein synthesis, and storage of genetic information. The document also examines how biomolecules interact and are organized within cells and cellular structures.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, or compounds derived from their hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates are also known as sugars.
Carbohydrates have the general formula C(H2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms.
Carbohydrates are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The term “sugar” is applied to carbohydrates that are soluble in water and sweet to taste.
Carbohydrates metabolism and lipids biosynthesis and oxidationDr Kirpa Ram Jangra
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as an important energy source. They typically break down to release energy through metabolism. The document discusses carbohydrate metabolism, including glycolysis, which involves breaking glucose down into pyruvate or lactic acid. Glycolysis yields ATP and NADH and is divided into preparatory and energy-yielding phases involving 10 steps that phosphorylate, isomerize, and break down glucose.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones that yield these derivatives upon hydrolysis. They are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monosaccharide units. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose and galactose. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharide units and include sucrose, lactose and maltose. Polysaccharides like starch, glycogen and cellulose are made of many glucose units and act as energy stores. Carbohydrates provide energy, aid digestion, and support brain function.
Carbohydrates can be broadly classified into 3 types: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be further broken down, while polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides. Carbohydrates serve important structural and energy storage functions in living organisms. They undergo various types of isomerism and chemical reactions important for their identification and analysis.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules on Earth. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are five major classifications of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and nucleotides. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose are formed through the joining of two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides allow for large storage of glucose and include starch, glycogen, and dietary fiber such as cellulose. Carbohydrates have many functions including energy storage, structure, and components of proteins.
This document discusses the structure and classification of carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates and describing their general structure as (CH2O)n. Carbohydrates are then classified into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides based on the number of monosaccharide units they contain. Key polysaccharides like cellulose, chitin, starch, and glycogen are described. The document also covers carbohydrate isomers, functions of carbohydrates, and important heteropolysaccharides including glycosaminoglycans.
some impor monosaccharide for BS students full notes.pptxSidraMahmood15
The monosaccharide consists of single unit which contains carbon chain of three to six carbon. They can combine through glycosidic bonds to form larger carbohydrates. The main function of monosaccharide is to produce and store energy. Glucose and fructose are the most available monosaccharide in nature.
- Carbohydrates provide energy and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Glucose is a primary carbohydrate that our bodies use for energy.
- Carbohydrates exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. Polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharide units.
- Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides that provide energy storage or structural support
Histololgy of Female Reproductive System.pptxAyeshaZaid1
Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
TEST BANK For Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition by...Donc Test
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- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
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Promoting Wellbeing - Applied Social Psychology - Psychology SuperNotesPsychoTech Services
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3. Functions
1. Carbohydrates are the main sources of energy in the body. Brain
cells and RBCs are almost wholly dependent on carbohydrates as
the energy source. Energy production from carbohydrates will be 4 k
calories/g (16 k Joules/g).
2. Storage form of energy (starch and glycogen).
3. Excess carbohydrate is converted to fat.
4. Glycoproteins and glycolipids are components of cell
membranes and receptors.
5. Structural basis of many organisms: Cellulose of plants;
exoskeleton of insects, cell wall of microorganisms,
mucopolysaccharides as ground substance in higher organisms.
4. • 6-Composed of large portions of the nucleotides
that form DNA and RNA.
• 7-Play a role in lubrication,cellular
intercommunication and immunity.
• 8-Component of blood groups in the blood.
5. • They are classified as follows:
• 1-Monosaccharides are those
carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolysed
into simpler carbohydrates .
12. • 3-Oligosaccharides produce 3-10
monosaccharide units on hydrolysis.
• E.g Maltotriose.
• 4-Polysaccharides produce more than 10
molecules of monosaccharides on
hydrolysis.
• E.g Starches and dextrins.
13. • Glucose is the most important
monosaccharide in humans.
• Glucose is represented in three ways:
• 1-Straigh chain form.
• 2-Haworth projection.
• 3-Chair form.
14.
15.
16. Sugars show various forms of
Isomerism.
• Stereoisomers are compounds that have
the same structural formula but differ in
spatial conformation.
• Isomers are formed due to presence of
asymmetirc carbon atoms.
• Number of Isomers=2 to power n.
• N= number of asymmetrical carbon atoms.
17. • Glucose has 4 asymmetrical carbon atoms
• Isomer=16.
• 1-D&L isomerism.
• 2-Optical isomer.
• This is when a beam of polarised light is passed
through a solution and is rotated to:
• A-Right,dextrorotatory(+) or
• B-Left,levorotatory(-)
18.
19. • Racemic:
• This when equal amounts of D and L isomers are
present resulting to mixture of no optical activities.
• 3-Pyranose and Furanose ring structures.
• 4-Alpha and Beta anomers.
• Anomeric carbons are new asymmetric carbons at
C1(glucose) and C2 (fructose) that created by cyclization
at carbon bound to oxygen in hemiacetal formation.
• If the hydroxyl on the anomeric carbon is below the
plane of the ring,it is in the alpha position.
• If the hydroxyl on the anomeric carbon is above the
plane of the ring,it is in the beta position.
20.
21. • Ring structure of Aldose is hemiacetal.
• Hemiacetal= Alcohol+Aldehyde
• The ring structure of ketose is hemiketal.
• Hemiketal=Alcohol+ketone.
• Mutarotation is the equilibrium between
alpha and beta anomers of glucofuranose.
• Glucose is called dextrose because in
solution in the body it exist in
dextrorotatory.
22. • 5-Epimers:
• These are isomers that differ as a result of
variations in the conformation of the-OH
and-H on carbon atoms 2,3, and 4 of
glucose.
• E.g Mannose is an epimer of glucose at
carbon number 2 and Galactose is an
epimer of glucose at carbon number 4
• 6- Aldose and Ketose isomers.
23.
24.
25. Glycosidic linkage.
• Sugars form glycosides.
• Glycosides are compounds formed from a condensation
between the hydroxyl group of the anomeric carbon of a
monosaccharide or monosaccharide residue and a
second compound.
• When second compound is not monosaccharide=
aglycone.
• If it is a hydroxyl an O-glycosidic bond is an acetal link.
• If it is a glucose=glucoside
• If galactose=galactoside.
• If the second group is an amine=N-glycosidic bond.
26. • Glycosides are found in drugs and spices
and animal tissues.
• Aglycone may be:
• Methanol,glycerol,asterol,phenol e t c.
• Important glycosides in medicine are:
• Derivatives of digitalis
• Strophanthus e.g ouabain.
• Antibiotic like streptomycin.
27. Physiologically important glycosides
1. Glucovanillin (vanillin-D-glucoside) is a natural substance that
imparts vanilla flavour.
2. Cardiac glycosides (steroidal glycosides) : Digoxin and
digitoxin contain the aglycone steroid and they stimulate muscle
contraction.
3. Streptomycin, an antibiotic used in the treatment of
tuberculosis is a glycoside.
4. Ouabain inhibits Na+ – K+ ATPase and blocks the active
transport of Na+.
5. Phlorizin produces renal damage in experimental animals.
28. Disaccharides.
• 1-Maltose=Glucose+Glucose.
• The glucose are linked by alhpa 1-4 glycosidic
bonds.
• 2-Sucrose=Glucose+ Fructose.
• The glucose is linked to fructose by beta 1-2
glycosidic bond.
• Hydrolysis of Sucrose produces a crude mixture
called INVERTED SUGAR.In this sugar fructose
under goes a rotation of 180 degrees and then it
is inverted upside down.
34. Polysaccharides.
• Homopolysaccharides are made of the
type of monosaccharide.
• Heteropolysaccharides are made up of
different types of monosaccharides.
• Important in humans as a source of bulk in
the diet.
35. • Starch is a homopolymer of glucose.
• It is formed of alpha glucosidic chain.
• The homopolymer is known as glucosan
or glucan.
• It hydrolysis to glucose.
• Food sources:
• Cereals,potatoes,legumes and other
vegetables.
36. • Starch is storage polysaccharide in plants.
• Starch is made up of :
• A-Amylose-15%-20% and non branching
helical structure.
• B-Amylopectin-80%-85% and consist of
branched chains of 24-30 glucose
residues linked by 1-4 linkage in chain and
1-6 linkage at branching points.
37.
38. • Glycogen is the storage polysaccharide in
animals.
• More branched with 12-14 glucosyl
residues in the chains in alpha 1-4
glycosidic bonds and alpha 1-6 glycosidic
linkage at the branching points.
39.
40. • Inulin is the starch found in the tubers and
roots of Dahlias,Artichokes,and
dandelions.
• Hydrolysis to fructose and therefore it is a
FRUCTOSAN.
• It is soluble in warm water and it is used to
determine the rate of glomerular
filtration(Kidney function).
41. • Dextrins are substances formed during
hydrolysis of starch.
• Limit dextrins are the first formed products
as hydrolysis reach certain degree of
branching.
42. • Cellulose is the chief constituent of the
framework of plants.
• Composed of chains of D-glucose units
linked by B-1-4 glycosidic linkages.
• Chains are linear.
• Cellulose cannot be digested by humans
of lack of hydrolase enzyme that can
break the B linkage.
43. • Chitin:
• Structural polysaccharide of invertebrates.
• Found in the exoskeletons of insects and
crustaceans.
• It consist of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine units
joined by beta (1-4) glycosidic linkage.
44.
45. CARBOHYDRATE DERIVATIVES.
• 1-Phosphoric acid esters of
monosaccharides.
• These are formed from the reaction of
phosphoric acid with a hydroxyl group of
sugar.E.g Glucose 6 phosphate, Glucose
1 phosphate.
• 2-Amino sugars are sugars whose
hydroxyl group is replaced by an amino or
acetylamino group.
47. • Examples are:
• A-Glucosamine which is product of
hydrolysis of chitin the major
polysaccharide of shells of insects and
crustaceans.
• B-Galactosamine is found in the
polysaccharide of cartalige,chondroitin
sulfate.
48. • 3-Sugar acids are produced by oxidation
of aldehyde carbon,hydroxyl carbon,or
both.
• Example:
• Ascorbic(Vitamin C) is a sugar acid.
• Glucuronic acid.
49. • 4- Deoxy sugars have a hydrogen atom in place of one
of their hydroxyl groups.
• E.g deoxyribose found DNA.
• 5-Sugar alcohols.
• Both aldoses and ketoses can be reduced at the
carbonyl carbon to the corresponding polyhydroxy
alcohols
50. • 1-Aldoses produce the corresponding
alcohols.
• D-Glucose produces D-Sorbitol.
• D-Mannose produces D-Mannitol.
• D-Galactose produces dulcitol.
• 2-Ketoses produce 2 alcohols.
• E.g. D-Fructose produces D-Mannitol and
D-Sorbitol.
51.
52. COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES.
• 1-Glycosaminoglycans consist of chains of
complex sugar made up of amino sugars
and uronic acid.
• They are made up of repeating units in
which D-Glucosamine or D-Galactosamine
or derivative of one of these sugars is
always present.
• E.g Heparin which act as anticoagulant.
53. • When is attached to protein molecule it is known
as Proteoglycan(Mucopolysaccharides).
• Examples:
• Chondroitin sulfate.
• Dermatan sulfate.
• Herparan sulfate.
• Keratan sulfate.
• Hyaluronic acid.
54.
55. • Functions:
• Ground or packing substance. Associated with
the structural elements of tissues like
bones,elastin and collagen.
• Cushioning and Lubrication because they hold
large quantities of water and occupying space.
• This is helped by large negative charges on the
molecules which by repulsion keep the
carbohydrate chains apart.
•
56.
57.
58. • 2-Glycoproteins(Mucoproteins):
• They have different proteins attached by
covalent bond to polysaccharides chains.
• Protein-carbohydrate linkages.
• A-O- linked glycoproteins.
• These have sugars attached via the hydroxyl
group of a serine or threonine residue.
• B-N-linked glycoproteins.
• These have sugars attached via the amide NH2
group of an asparagine residue.
59. • All major types contain a common
pentasaccharide core which is linked to
asparagine via N-acetylglucosamine.
• The glycoprotein can be term as HIGH
MANNOSE, COMPLEX , or HYBRID
depending on the nature of the other
sugars attached to the core.
60.
61. • Functions:
• A- Structural molecules( components of
cell walls and membranes).
• B-Lubricants(mucus).
• C-Cell attachment and recognition sites.
• D-Certain hormones(Human chorionic
gonadotropin,thyrotropin).
• E-Immunologic components-
immunoglobins,complement,interferon.
62.
63. 3-The blood group Antigens:
• The blood group antigens are spicific
classes of oligosaccharides that may be
bound to proteins.
• There are more than 20 different blood
groups containing more than 150 different
antigens.
• The commonly studied blood group is the
ABO antigens.
64.
65. • Blood types:
• A-Type O.
• Blood group O makes antibodies against
typeA and type B antigens .
• Receive blood only from blood group O.
• Donate blood to an individual with any
other blood type.
• It is known as UNIVERSAL DONOR.
66. • B-Type A.
• A person with blood group A makes
antibodies only to type B antigens and can
receive blood from either type O or type A
donors.
• Donates blood to either type A or type AB.
67. • C-TypeB.
• Makes antibodies against type A antigens
and can receive blood from either type O
or type B donors.
• Donates blood to either typeB or typeAB
68. • D-Type AB.
• Aperson with type AB blood group makes
no antibodies but receives blood from any
donor but donates blood only to other
type AB individuals.
• It is known as UNIVERSAL RECIPIENT.
69.
70.
71. Clinical correlations.
• The glycoside digitalis and its derivatives are
clinical significance because they inhibit the
Na+-K+ ATPase on the cell membranes.Such
drugs are used in the treatment of congestive
heart failure.
• Heparin is a glycosaminoglycan which is an
important anticoagulant( prevent coagulation of
blood) found in the granules of the mast cells.It
can be used during the treatment of myocardial
infarction( decrease of blood to the muscles of
the heart) as well as for the prevention of the
deep venous thrombosis during hospitalizations.
72. • The influenza virus infects cells by binding
its viral heamagglutinin to sialic acid on the
surface epithelial cells.
73.
74.
75. Assignment N0.2
• 1. Define and classify carbohydrates(give
examples and draw their sturctures)
• 2. Discuss about the 3 main
disaccharides( This should include its
formation, bonding, importance and
biomedical importances)
• 3. What are stereoisomers? Discuss about
the various types you know
76. • 4. Write an essay on
mucopolysaccharides and its biomedical
importance. Where necessary draw the
structures.
• 5. Discuss about glycosides and their
biomedical importances
• 6. Write an account on A. Polysaccharides
• B.Hyaluronic acid. C. Blood groups
• 7. Write an essay on the cell membrane