Carbohydrates
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Carbohydrates are biomolecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be broken down further, and include trioses, tetroses, pentoses like ribulose, and hexoses like glucose. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharide units bonded together, such as maltose, sucrose, and lactose. Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides with many units, consisting of either homopolysaccharides like starch, glycogen, and cellulose, or heteropolysaccharides such as mucopolysaccharides. Carbohydrates serve important roles as energy sources, stores
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Disaccharides
Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides joined by an O-glycosidic linkage. The main disaccharides discussed are:
1) Sucrose (table sugar), which hydrolyzes into glucose and fructose. Inversion of sucrose produces invert sugar, which is sweeter.
2) Maltose, formed from two glucose molecules and is a reducing sugar. It is found in germinating seeds.
3) Lactose is the sugar in milk, formed from glucose and galactose. It is hydrolyzed by lactase in the small intestine.
Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides- structure and function
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include sugars and starches, and are made up of monosaccharides which are simple sugars that can be aldehydes or ketones. Monosaccharides can take on different configurations around the carbon atom called the anomeric carbon. The two main anomers are alpha and beta, which can interconvert through a process called mutarotation. Monosaccharides can also form linear or cyclic structures depending on whether they form an open or closed ring. Common monosaccharide derivatives include sugar acids, sugar alcohols, deoxy sugars, and amino sugars.
Chemistry of carbohydrates - General introduction and classification
Significance of carbohydrates in nature, the general classification of carbohydrates, and classification & functions of monosaccharides
Carbohdrates
This document defines and classifies carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that include sugars, starches, and fibers. They are classified into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be broken down further, while oligosaccharides contain 2-10 monosaccharide units and polysaccharides contain over 10 units and are not sweet tasting. Common monosaccharides include glucose and fructose, while examples of polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin. Carbohydrates serve as energy sources for cells and as structural materials in plants.
CARBOHYDRATE
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate structure and classification. It discusses:
- Monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides as the main classes of carbohydrates.
- Common monosaccharides including glucose and fructose, their cyclic and linear forms, and D/L designations.
- Examples of disaccharides like maltose, cellobiose, sucrose, and lactose formed by glycosidic bond formation.
- Polysaccharides including starch (amylose, amylopectin), glycogen, and cellulose and their roles in storage and structure.
Oligosacchrides
Oligosaccharides are sugar molecules made of 2-10 monosaccharide units. They are less sweet and less soluble than monosaccharides. Oligosaccharides are classified based on the number of monosaccharide units and include disaccharides with 2 units, trisaccharides with 3 units, and tetrasaccharides and pentasaccharides with 4 and 5 units respectively. Oligosaccharides are not digested by humans but are consumed by intestinal bacteria, which is important as it helps the growth of microflora, reduces pathogens, prevents constipation, and provides other health benefits.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are carbohydrates formed from two monosaccharides bonded together. The three most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Maltose contains two glucose molecules bonded with an alpha-1,4 linkage. Lactose contains glucose and galactose with a beta-1,4 linkage. Sucrose contains glucose and fructose with an alpha-1,2 linkage. These disaccharides differ in their monosaccharide components and bond linkages.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids. It occurs primarily in the liver and involves bypassing the three irreversible steps of glycolysis through different enzymes. Key enzymes in gluconeogenesis include pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase which catalyze reactions to bypass pyruvate kinase. Gluconeogenesis and glycolysis share certain intermediate compounds but are not simple reversals of each other due to different enzymatic pathways. Regulation of these two processes helps determine whether glucose or glycogen will be synthesized or broken down depending on the body's energy needs.
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Disaccharides
Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides joined by an O-glycosidic linkage. The main disaccharides discussed are:
1) Sucrose (table sugar), which hydrolyzes into glucose and fructose. Inversion of sucrose produces invert sugar, which is sweeter.
2) Maltose, formed from two glucose molecules and is a reducing sugar. It is found in germinating seeds.
3) Lactose is the sugar in milk, formed from glucose and galactose. It is hydrolyzed by lactase in the small intestine.
Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides- structure and function
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include sugars and starches, and are made up of monosaccharides which are simple sugars that can be aldehydes or ketones. Monosaccharides can take on different configurations around the carbon atom called the anomeric carbon. The two main anomers are alpha and beta, which can interconvert through a process called mutarotation. Monosaccharides can also form linear or cyclic structures depending on whether they form an open or closed ring. Common monosaccharide derivatives include sugar acids, sugar alcohols, deoxy sugars, and amino sugars.
Chemistry of carbohydrates - General introduction and classification
Significance of carbohydrates in nature, the general classification of carbohydrates, and classification & functions of monosaccharides
Carbohdrates
This document defines and classifies carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that include sugars, starches, and fibers. They are classified into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be broken down further, while oligosaccharides contain 2-10 monosaccharide units and polysaccharides contain over 10 units and are not sweet tasting. Common monosaccharides include glucose and fructose, while examples of polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin. Carbohydrates serve as energy sources for cells and as structural materials in plants.
CARBOHYDRATE
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate structure and classification. It discusses:
- Monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides as the main classes of carbohydrates.
- Common monosaccharides including glucose and fructose, their cyclic and linear forms, and D/L designations.
- Examples of disaccharides like maltose, cellobiose, sucrose, and lactose formed by glycosidic bond formation.
- Polysaccharides including starch (amylose, amylopectin), glycogen, and cellulose and their roles in storage and structure.
Oligosacchrides
Oligosaccharides are sugar molecules made of 2-10 monosaccharide units. They are less sweet and less soluble than monosaccharides. Oligosaccharides are classified based on the number of monosaccharide units and include disaccharides with 2 units, trisaccharides with 3 units, and tetrasaccharides and pentasaccharides with 4 and 5 units respectively. Oligosaccharides are not digested by humans but are consumed by intestinal bacteria, which is important as it helps the growth of microflora, reduces pathogens, prevents constipation, and provides other health benefits.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are carbohydrates formed from two monosaccharides bonded together. The three most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Maltose contains two glucose molecules bonded with an alpha-1,4 linkage. Lactose contains glucose and galactose with a beta-1,4 linkage. Sucrose contains glucose and fructose with an alpha-1,2 linkage. These disaccharides differ in their monosaccharide components and bond linkages.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids. It occurs primarily in the liver and involves bypassing the three irreversible steps of glycolysis through different enzymes. Key enzymes in gluconeogenesis include pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase which catalyze reactions to bypass pyruvate kinase. Gluconeogenesis and glycolysis share certain intermediate compounds but are not simple reversals of each other due to different enzymatic pathways. Regulation of these two processes helps determine whether glucose or glycogen will be synthesized or broken down depending on the body's energy needs.
POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides or their derivatives joined by glycosidic bonds. They are classified as homopolymers or heteropolymers. Starch is a major homopolysaccharide composed of amylose and amylopectin, while glycogen is the animal equivalent found mainly in liver and muscle. Cellulose is an insoluble polymer of glucose that provides structure to plant cell walls. Mucopolysaccharides are heteropolymers containing amino sugars and acidic sugars. Common types include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate, heparin, and heparan sulfate. Mucopolysaccharidoses are a group of genetic disorders caused by
Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are the simplest type of carbohydrate that cannot be broken down further. They typically have 3-7 carbon atoms and have the formula (CH2O)n. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and ribose. Glucose is a six-carbon aldohexose that is the major source of energy for cells. It is also a component of important disaccharides and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Fructose is a ketose found in fruits, while galactose is found in milk and dairy and is involved in glycolipids and glycoproteins. Monosaccharides can undergo oxidation reactions where the carbonyl group is oxidized, or reduction
Polysaccharide
Polysaccharide introduction, example, structure, starch, cellulose, chitin those structure and important functions and their presence in plants and animals, polysaccharide types based on functions and their composition , functions of polysaccharides , important images for relevant polysaccharides types, polysaccharide role in plants and animal cells. Starch - structure and functions, cellulose structure and functions, chitin - structure and functions
Carbohydrate metabolism
Kidney.
Muscle.
Adipose tissue.
Brain.
Pancreas.
Gastrointestinal tract.
Hormones.
Nervous system.
Enzymes.
Transporters.
Feedback regulation.
Counter regulatory hormones.
Insulin sensitivity.
Insulin resistance.
Diabetes mellitus.
Obesity.
Starvation.
Heteropolysaccharides
Heteropolysaccharides are polymers made from two or more types of monosaccharides. They include glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) like hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfates, as well as glycoconjugates and mucilages. GAGs are long, unbranched polymers containing uronic acid and amino sugars that form gels and provide structural support to tissues. Common GAGs include hyaluronic acid in joints and vitreous humor, chondroitin sulfate in cartilage, and heparin which is an anticoagulant found in mast cells. Glycoconjugates contain GAGs attached to core proteins, like proteoglycans in the extracellular matrix. M
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are hydrates of carbon that come in two types - simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates are found in fruits, vegetables and dairy while complex carbohydrates are found in grains and starchy vegetables. Carbohydrates provide the body with its primary source of energy and also supply fiber, vitamins and minerals. Benedict's test and iodine test can identify the presence of reducing sugars and starch, respectively. Carbohydrates are broken down through digestion in the mouth, stomach and small intestine into glucose, which is then absorbed for energy or storage.
HMP shunt
The pentose phosphate pathway generates NADPH and pentose sugars. It has both an oxidative and non-oxidative phase. In the oxidative phase, glucose-6-phosphate is oxidized to produce NADPH. In the non-oxidative phase, 5-carbon sugars are converted into 3 and 6 carbon sugars through a series of isomerization, epimerization, and transketolase reactions. The pathway is important as it provides NADPH for biosynthetic reactions and pentose sugars for nucleotide synthesis. A defect in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase can lead to insufficient NADPH and glutathione, resulting in hemolytic anemia due to oxidative damage of red blood cells.
Basics of Carbohydrates Chemistry
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature.
They are commonly known as saccharides or sugars.
They are primarily composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
The name carbohydrate literally means “hydrates of carbon”.
Carbohydrates are widely distributed in nature in plants and animals.
The most important carbohydrate found in plants is starch.
It occurs abundantly in roots, tubers, vegetables and grains. The carbohydrate found in animals is glycogen.
It is a storage form of carbohydrate present in liver and muscles, which serves as important sources of energy for vital activities.
Mucopolysaccharides
Mucopolysaccharides are gel-like substances found in body cells, mucous secretions, and synovial fluids. Mucopolysaccharidoses are genetic disorders caused by a deficiency of enzymes needed to break down mucopolysaccharides, resulting in their excessive accumulation in body tissues. This can cause skeletal deformities, mental retardation, decreased life expectancy, and other serious physical disorders. Examples of mucopolysaccharidoses include Hurler syndrome, Hunter syndrome, Scheie syndrome, Sanfilippo syndrome, Morquio disease, and Maroteaux-Lamy syndrome. Currently there is no cure for mucopolysaccharide disorders, but enzyme replacement therapy and gene therapy are areas of focus for
DISACCHARIDES
A BRIEF PRESENTATION ON DISACCHARIDES.
NOTE- FONTS MAY APPEAR WEIRD BCOZ THE FONTS I USED DO NOT APPEAR IN THIS PPT.
Carbohydrate Chemistry
https://youtu.be/XTJ87QYY4uw
click on above link for video of above ppt
Chemistry of Carbohydrates for medical, para medical, Science students.
Classification of polysaccharides, gluconeogenesis and glucogenolysis.
This document discusses polysaccharides and glycogen metabolism. It begins by defining polysaccharides and classifying them into homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides. Examples of homopolysaccharides include starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Heteropolysaccharides include substances like hyaluronic acid. The document then explains gluconeogenesis, the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors. Finally, it covers glycogenolysis, the breakdown of glycogen stores in the liver and muscle to maintain blood glucose levels.
Carbohydrate property, classification and function
Carbohydrates are biomolecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their size. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrate and include trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, and heptoses based on the number of carbon atoms. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Monosaccharides can exist as cyclic or linear structures and have properties like mutarotation. They serve important functions as an energy source in cells and as intermediates in metabolic pathways.
Polysaccharides
This document summarizes polysaccharides and glycans. It discusses homopolysaccharides including fructosan, galactosan, and glucosans such as starch and glycogen. Starch is made of amylose and amylopectin and forms helical structures with iodine. Cellulose is composed of beta-glucose units linked by beta-1,4 bonds, forming long straight chains strengthened by hydrogen bonds. Glycosaminoglycans discussed include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and heparan sulfate. Proteoglycans are composed of core proteins with covalently linked glycosaminoglycan side chains. They
Lipids
“These are the naturally Organic compounds, insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents (alcohol, ether, etc.), which are potentially related to fatty acids & utilized by living cells."
Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds.
They are esters of fatty acids. Lipids occur widely in plants and animals. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and related compounds.
Lipids are a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils. These molecules yield high energy and are responsible for different functions within the human body.
Carbohydrates
The document discusses the three main types of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrate, consisting of a single sugar molecule like glucose, fructose, or galactose. Disaccharides join two monosaccharide units together, examples being sucrose, lactose, or maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of many monosaccharide or disaccharide units, used by plants for storage as starch or structural support as cellulose, and by animals for storage as glycogen.
Oligosaccharides
This document discusses various oligosaccharides, including disaccharides like maltose, sucrose, and lactose. It describes their composition and properties. Trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, and pentasaccharides containing glucose, galactose and fructose are also examined. The document concludes with notes on cycloheptamylose and stachyose, and provides a high-level summary of the various carbohydrates covered.
Glycogenolysis
Glycogen metabolism involves the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate through glycogenolysis. Glycogenolysis occurs in three steps: 1) glycogen phosphorylase cleaves glucose from glycogen, 2) transferase and alpha-1,6-glucosidase remodel glycogen to allow further degradation, and 3) phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate. In liver, glucose-6-phosphatase converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose for blood glucose regulation. In muscle, glucose-6-phosphate enters glycolysis for rapid energy production.
Biochem nucleotides(structure and functions) june.18.2010
Nucleic acids are made up of monomeric units called nucleotides. Nucleotides serve important biochemical functions as components of coenzymes involved in transferring phosphoryl, sugar, lipid groups. They also function as second messengers like cAMP and cGMP. Synthetic nucleotides containing halogens or additional nitrogen are used in chemotherapy and immunosuppression. Purines and pyrimidines are heterocyclic nitrogen-containing compounds that form the bases of nucleic acids. Nucleosides are derivatives of bases linked to a sugar, while nucleotides contain a phosphoryl group attached to the sugar. RNA and DNA are made up of ribonucleotides and deoxyribonucleotides formed through a series of phosphorylation and conversion reactions in
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as a primary energy source. They can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their structure. The three most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Polysaccharides include glycogen, starch, and cellulose. Glycogen functions as energy storage in animals, while cellulose provides structure to plant cell walls. Carbohydrates play important structural and functional roles throughout biology.
Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins
The document provides information about various biomolecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, amino acids, glucose, ribose, and fatty acids. It includes diagrams of their structures and functions in animals and plants. Assessment statements are provided related to distinguishing organic and inorganic compounds, identifying biomolecule structures, examples of mono/di/polysaccharides and their functions, the roles of condensation and hydrolysis reactions, and comparing carbohydrate and lipid use for energy storage.
Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
This document summarizes key nutrients that provide calories - carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. It describes the sources and functions of carbohydrates including sugars, starches, and fiber. It also discusses the different types of fats including saturated, unsaturated, and trans fats. Finally, it covers the sources and functions of protein as well as complete and incomplete protein sources and dietary recommendations.
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POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides or their derivatives joined by glycosidic bonds. They are classified as homopolymers or heteropolymers. Starch is a major homopolysaccharide composed of amylose and amylopectin, while glycogen is the animal equivalent found mainly in liver and muscle. Cellulose is an insoluble polymer of glucose that provides structure to plant cell walls. Mucopolysaccharides are heteropolymers containing amino sugars and acidic sugars. Common types include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate, heparin, and heparan sulfate. Mucopolysaccharidoses are a group of genetic disorders caused by
Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are the simplest type of carbohydrate that cannot be broken down further. They typically have 3-7 carbon atoms and have the formula (CH2O)n. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and ribose. Glucose is a six-carbon aldohexose that is the major source of energy for cells. It is also a component of important disaccharides and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Fructose is a ketose found in fruits, while galactose is found in milk and dairy and is involved in glycolipids and glycoproteins. Monosaccharides can undergo oxidation reactions where the carbonyl group is oxidized, or reduction
Polysaccharide
Polysaccharide introduction, example, structure, starch, cellulose, chitin those structure and important functions and their presence in plants and animals, polysaccharide types based on functions and their composition , functions of polysaccharides , important images for relevant polysaccharides types, polysaccharide role in plants and animal cells. Starch - structure and functions, cellulose structure and functions, chitin - structure and functions
Carbohydrate metabolism
Kidney.
Muscle.
Adipose tissue.
Brain.
Pancreas.
Gastrointestinal tract.
Hormones.
Nervous system.
Enzymes.
Transporters.
Feedback regulation.
Counter regulatory hormones.
Insulin sensitivity.
Insulin resistance.
Diabetes mellitus.
Obesity.
Starvation.
Heteropolysaccharides
Heteropolysaccharides are polymers made from two or more types of monosaccharides. They include glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) like hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfates, as well as glycoconjugates and mucilages. GAGs are long, unbranched polymers containing uronic acid and amino sugars that form gels and provide structural support to tissues. Common GAGs include hyaluronic acid in joints and vitreous humor, chondroitin sulfate in cartilage, and heparin which is an anticoagulant found in mast cells. Glycoconjugates contain GAGs attached to core proteins, like proteoglycans in the extracellular matrix. M
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are hydrates of carbon that come in two types - simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates are found in fruits, vegetables and dairy while complex carbohydrates are found in grains and starchy vegetables. Carbohydrates provide the body with its primary source of energy and also supply fiber, vitamins and minerals. Benedict's test and iodine test can identify the presence of reducing sugars and starch, respectively. Carbohydrates are broken down through digestion in the mouth, stomach and small intestine into glucose, which is then absorbed for energy or storage.
HMP shunt
The pentose phosphate pathway generates NADPH and pentose sugars. It has both an oxidative and non-oxidative phase. In the oxidative phase, glucose-6-phosphate is oxidized to produce NADPH. In the non-oxidative phase, 5-carbon sugars are converted into 3 and 6 carbon sugars through a series of isomerization, epimerization, and transketolase reactions. The pathway is important as it provides NADPH for biosynthetic reactions and pentose sugars for nucleotide synthesis. A defect in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase can lead to insufficient NADPH and glutathione, resulting in hemolytic anemia due to oxidative damage of red blood cells.
Basics of Carbohydrates Chemistry
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature.
They are commonly known as saccharides or sugars.
They are primarily composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
The name carbohydrate literally means “hydrates of carbon”.
Carbohydrates are widely distributed in nature in plants and animals.
The most important carbohydrate found in plants is starch.
It occurs abundantly in roots, tubers, vegetables and grains. The carbohydrate found in animals is glycogen.
It is a storage form of carbohydrate present in liver and muscles, which serves as important sources of energy for vital activities.
Mucopolysaccharides
Mucopolysaccharides are gel-like substances found in body cells, mucous secretions, and synovial fluids. Mucopolysaccharidoses are genetic disorders caused by a deficiency of enzymes needed to break down mucopolysaccharides, resulting in their excessive accumulation in body tissues. This can cause skeletal deformities, mental retardation, decreased life expectancy, and other serious physical disorders. Examples of mucopolysaccharidoses include Hurler syndrome, Hunter syndrome, Scheie syndrome, Sanfilippo syndrome, Morquio disease, and Maroteaux-Lamy syndrome. Currently there is no cure for mucopolysaccharide disorders, but enzyme replacement therapy and gene therapy are areas of focus for
DISACCHARIDES
A BRIEF PRESENTATION ON DISACCHARIDES.
NOTE- FONTS MAY APPEAR WEIRD BCOZ THE FONTS I USED DO NOT APPEAR IN THIS PPT.
Carbohydrate Chemistry
https://youtu.be/XTJ87QYY4uw
click on above link for video of above ppt
Chemistry of Carbohydrates for medical, para medical, Science students.
Classification of polysaccharides, gluconeogenesis and glucogenolysis.
This document discusses polysaccharides and glycogen metabolism. It begins by defining polysaccharides and classifying them into homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides. Examples of homopolysaccharides include starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Heteropolysaccharides include substances like hyaluronic acid. The document then explains gluconeogenesis, the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors. Finally, it covers glycogenolysis, the breakdown of glycogen stores in the liver and muscle to maintain blood glucose levels.
Carbohydrate property, classification and function
Carbohydrates are biomolecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their size. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrate and include trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, and heptoses based on the number of carbon atoms. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Monosaccharides can exist as cyclic or linear structures and have properties like mutarotation. They serve important functions as an energy source in cells and as intermediates in metabolic pathways.
Polysaccharides
This document summarizes polysaccharides and glycans. It discusses homopolysaccharides including fructosan, galactosan, and glucosans such as starch and glycogen. Starch is made of amylose and amylopectin and forms helical structures with iodine. Cellulose is composed of beta-glucose units linked by beta-1,4 bonds, forming long straight chains strengthened by hydrogen bonds. Glycosaminoglycans discussed include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and heparan sulfate. Proteoglycans are composed of core proteins with covalently linked glycosaminoglycan side chains. They
Lipids
“These are the naturally Organic compounds, insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents (alcohol, ether, etc.), which are potentially related to fatty acids & utilized by living cells."
Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds.
They are esters of fatty acids. Lipids occur widely in plants and animals. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and related compounds.
Lipids are a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils. These molecules yield high energy and are responsible for different functions within the human body.
Carbohydrates
The document discusses the three main types of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrate, consisting of a single sugar molecule like glucose, fructose, or galactose. Disaccharides join two monosaccharide units together, examples being sucrose, lactose, or maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of many monosaccharide or disaccharide units, used by plants for storage as starch or structural support as cellulose, and by animals for storage as glycogen.
Oligosaccharides
This document discusses various oligosaccharides, including disaccharides like maltose, sucrose, and lactose. It describes their composition and properties. Trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, and pentasaccharides containing glucose, galactose and fructose are also examined. The document concludes with notes on cycloheptamylose and stachyose, and provides a high-level summary of the various carbohydrates covered.
Glycogenolysis
Glycogen metabolism involves the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate through glycogenolysis. Glycogenolysis occurs in three steps: 1) glycogen phosphorylase cleaves glucose from glycogen, 2) transferase and alpha-1,6-glucosidase remodel glycogen to allow further degradation, and 3) phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate. In liver, glucose-6-phosphatase converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose for blood glucose regulation. In muscle, glucose-6-phosphate enters glycolysis for rapid energy production.
Biochem nucleotides(structure and functions) june.18.2010
Nucleic acids are made up of monomeric units called nucleotides. Nucleotides serve important biochemical functions as components of coenzymes involved in transferring phosphoryl, sugar, lipid groups. They also function as second messengers like cAMP and cGMP. Synthetic nucleotides containing halogens or additional nitrogen are used in chemotherapy and immunosuppression. Purines and pyrimidines are heterocyclic nitrogen-containing compounds that form the bases of nucleic acids. Nucleosides are derivatives of bases linked to a sugar, while nucleotides contain a phosphoryl group attached to the sugar. RNA and DNA are made up of ribonucleotides and deoxyribonucleotides formed through a series of phosphorylation and conversion reactions in
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as a primary energy source. They can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their structure. The three most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Polysaccharides include glycogen, starch, and cellulose. Glycogen functions as energy storage in animals, while cellulose provides structure to plant cell walls. Carbohydrates play important structural and functional roles throughout biology.
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This document provides information about carbohydrates including their history, occurrence, classification, isolation, properties, identification tests, pharmaceutical importance, and pharmacognostic study of individual carbohydrate-containing drugs. It discusses the various classes of carbohydrates such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Examples are provided for each class. The document also outlines methods for extracting different types of carbohydrates from plant materials and identifying carbohydrates using common chemical tests. The pharmaceutical uses and importance of some specific carbohydrates are highlighted. Individual drug monographs on pectin, guar gum, agar, acacia, honey, isapgol, and tragacanth are also included which detail
Carbohydrates
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Carbohydrates 101
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Centrifugation is the separation technique commonly used in clinical and research laboratories.
It is based on the behavior of particles in an applied centrifugal field.
More dense components of the mixture move away from the axis of the centrifuge while less dense components of the mixture move towards the axis.
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Biomolecules (Mainly Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids and Nucleic Acids ) Production form Microorganisms and their Industrial applications were discussed....
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CARBOHYDRATE CHEMISTRY
- Plants convert 100 metric tons of CO2 into carbohydrates each year through photosynthesis.
- Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules and serve important functions like energy storage, structure, and encoding biologic information through oligosaccharide chains.
- Monosaccharides can exist as cyclic or linear structures and take on different configurations that impact their chemical and physical properties. Common techniques like mutarotation, osazone formation, and oxidation reactions are used to characterize carbohydrates.
Digestion and Absorption of carbohydrates
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The term carbohydrate covers a large number of diferent compounds, all composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
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Centrifugation
Centrifugation is a process that uses centrifugal force to separate particles or molecules based on their size, shape, or density. It involves spinning a sample in a centrifuge to separate it into its components. There are various types of centrifugation classified based on speed, temperature, or separation method including differential, isopycnic, sucrose gradient, and ultracentrifugation. Centrifugation has many applications in industries like pharmaceuticals, water treatment, and oil extraction as well as in research areas like biochemistry and molecular biology.
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Carbohydrates
- 2. What is a Carbohydrate •It is a biomolecule •It is a macromolecule •It consists with C, H and O atoms •General formula – Cx(H2O)y •It has glycocidic bonds
- 3. Classification of Carbohydrates Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides
- 4. Monosaccharides • Simple sugars • Cannot hydrolyze into simple form • Open chain form and ring form can be seen • Has aldehyde group or ketone group • Can be divided according number of carbon atoms
- 5. Number of Carbon atoms Name Examples 3 Trioses Dihydroxyacet- one 4 Tetroses Ribose 5 Pentoses Ribulose 6 Hexoses Glucose
- 6. Disaccharides •Formed with two monosaccharides •Bond between two monosaccharaides –glycosidic bond •Only ring form involving making disaccharides •Ex: Maltose glucose + glucose Sucrose glucose + fructose Lactose glucose + galactose
- 7. Polysaccharides •Polymers of monosaccharides (more than 6 units) •Two types Homopolysaccharides ex: Starch, glycogen, cellulose Heteropolysaccharides ex: Mucopolysaccharides •Only ring form is involving making polysaccharides
- 8. •Act as a source of energy. Ex: glucose •Act as energy store. Ex: glycogen •Building blocks of important macromolecules. Ex: Ribose in RNA •Structural constituent in cell wall Ex: cellulose Roles of carbohydrates
- 9. Thank You K S A Chathurangika Wayamba University of Sri Lanka