The document discusses the basic biochemical components that make up living organisms: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, amino acids, and nucleic acids. It defines each component, describes their classification and biological functions. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches and serve as energy sources. Lipids include fats and oils and serve structural and insulating functions. Proteins are made of amino acids and are essential for growth, tissue repair, and metabolic processes. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA carry genetic information and allow for protein translation.

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DEFINITION:
”Carbohydrates are defend chemically as aldehyde or ketone derivatives of the higher
polyhydric alcohols or compound which are yield these derivatives on hydrolysis’’.
The foods we eat contain nutrients that provide energy and other things the body needs. Most of the
nutrients in food fall into three major groups: proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. The two main forms
of carbohydrates are sugars (such as fructose, glucose, and lactose) and starches, which are found in
foods such. The body breaks down (or converts) most carbohydrates into the sugar glucose, which is
absorbed into the bloodstream. As the glucose level rises in the body, the pancreas releases a
hormone called insulin. Insulin is needed to move sugar from the blood into the cells, where it can be
used as a source of energy.
CLASSIFICATION
Carbohydrates are divided are into four major groups
 Monosaccharide’s(simple sugar):
Are those which cannot be hydrolyzed further into simpler forms.
GENERAL FORMULA: CnH2nOn
 Disaccharides:
Those sugars which yield two molecules of the same or different molecules of monosaccharide on
hydrolysis.
GENERAL FORMULA: Cn(H2O)n-1
 Oligosaccharides:
Those sugar which yield 3 to 10 monosaccharide’s on hydrolysis.
e.g. Maltotrioses.
 Polysaccharides:
Those sugar which yield more than ten molecules of monosaccharide’s on hydrolysis.
GENERAL FORMULA: (C6.H10.O5) n

2. BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF
CARBOHYDRATES:
 Provide major source of energy.
 Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis
 Biological recognition processes of immunoglobulins and self MHCs.
 Regulation of various metabolic processes in the body as key molecules in the
central metabolic pathways of the body.
 Serve also as stored forms of energy as glycogen in liver and muscles.
 Stabilization of protein structures as in the case of glycoproteins.
 Important components of brain cells as neuraminic acids, cerebrosides
(Glycolipids) and gangliosides.
 Carbohydrates form the chief components of sulfolipids which are present in
chloroplasts and in chromatophores of photosynthetic bacteria.
 Storage form of food in plants as starch.
 Trehalose (Disaccharide) is the chief component of the hemolymph of insects,
where it serves as the chief source of energy. It is also present in yeasts and other
fungi.
 Carbohydrates are essential components of milk, especially lactose.
 Insulin (Homopolysaccharide) is used for clinical purposes in clearance tests.
Pharmaceutical importance of
carbohydrates:
 Agar is an important polysaccharide, which is of great value in preparation of foodstuffs for
diet of invalids, and is utilized in laboratories as culture media.
 Pectin is utilized for furnishing gelling characteristics to jellies, and is used for preservation
of fruits.
 Inulin (Homopolysacharide) is used for clinical purposes in clearance tests.
 Flavor and Sweeteners.

3.  Many glucosides (Carbohydrate derivative from plants) are important drugs,
such as glucoside of digitalis which is utilized for the treatment of heart diseases.
What are lipids???
The lipids constitute a very important heterogeneous group of organic substances in plant and
animal tissue, and related either actually or potentially to the fatty acid. Chemically they are
various types of esters of different alcohols. In addition to alcohol and fatty acids, some of the
lipids may contain phosphoric acid, nitrogenous base carbohydrates.

4. CLASSIFICATION
BLOOR’S CLASSIFICATION:
COMPLEX
LIPIDS
DERIVED
LIPIDS
SIMPLE
LIPIDS
Simple Compound or Conjugated
or Complex
Derived
Triacylglycerol Lipoproteins Cholesterol
Ceramide Glycolipids (Cerebroside,
Ganglioside)
Retinol

5. Example of lipids
FUNCTIONS OF SIMPLE LIPIDS
 Neutral lipids
 Stored in adipose tissue
 Give body contours
 Insulators
 Store energy
COMPOUND LIPIDS: FUNCTIONS
Lipid with some other non-lipid group
 Phosphatidyl Inositol Triphosphate
 Phosphatidyl Ethanolamine
 Phosphatidyl Serine
 Phosphatidyl Choline
 Phosphatidyl glycerol
DERIVED LIPIDS:
• Molecules/group that are made from a lipid.
 Fatty acid
Waxes Phospholipids Cholcalciferol
- Sphingolipids (Glyco and
Phospho)
Ketone bodies
- Sulpholipids Fatty acids
- - Steroid hormones
Prostaglandins
Ecosanoids

6.  Glycerol
 Sterol
*Cholesterol
*Sex hormones
 Ketone bodies
 Bile acids/salts
 Fat soluble Vitamins
 A,D,E and K.
Biomedical importance of lipids:
 Stored as a source of energy in the body.
 Structural component of biomembrance.
 Thermal insulator: Provide insulation against changes in external temperature.
 The nervous system is particularly rich in lipids especially certain types and are essential for proper
functioning.
 Some vitamins like A, D, E and K are fats soluble, hence lipids is necessary for these vitamins.
 Breakdown of fats can be utilized for building biological active material.
 Lipids as lipoproteins and lipopolysaccharides are found in the plasma membranes of Bacteria.
 Wax which is a Lipid. It is of various types:
---> Cerumen (Ear wax): It is found in the human ear to protect the entry of bacteria and insects
and also to amplify sound.
---> Lanolin (Wool Wax): It is found in the wool of animals to protect them against the ravages of
climate and the environment.
--> Bee wax is produced by bees and it us used for making candles.
 Suberin is a simple lipid. It is present in the cork cells of plant to provide strengthening.
 Terpenes which are lipids are found in plant hormones like Gibberlins. These hormones cause
lateral growth and termination in plants. They also prevent dormancy.
DEFINITION:Any of a group of complex organic macromolecules that contain carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, and usually sulfur and are composed of one or more chains of amino acids. Proteins
are fundamental components of all living cells and include many substances, such as enzymes,

7. hormones, and antibodies, that are necessary for the proper functioning of an organism. They are
essential in the diet of animals for the growth and repair of tissue and can be obtained from foods such as
meat, fish, eggs, milk, and legumes,
Classification of Proteins
There are two methods for classifying proteins.
(i) Classification according to Composition
(ii) Classification according to Functions
example. Secondary structure of proteins is due to
(A) peptide bond (B) hydrogen bond
(C) covalent bond (D) co-ordinate bond
Solution: Hydrogen bond.
Classification according to Composition
Simple proteins
(i) Simple proteins are those which yield only α-amino acids upon hydrolysis.
(ii) Simple proteins are composed of chain of amino acid unit only joined by
peptide linkage.
Examples are:
Egg (albumin); Serum (globulins); Wheat (Glutelin); Rice (Coryzenin)
Conjugated proteins
(i) Conjugated proteins are those which yield α - amino acids plus a non protein
material on hydrolysis.
(ii) The non protein material is called the prosthetic group.
Example:
Casein in milk (prosthetic group is phosphoric acid); Hemoglobin (prosthetic
group is Nucleic acid); Chlolesterol (prosthetic group – lipid).
According to molecular shape, proteins are further classified into two types.
(A) Fibrous protein
(a) These are made up of polypeptide chain that are parallel to the axis & are
held together by strong hydrogen and disulphide bonds.
(b) They can be stretched & contracted like thread.
(c) They are usually insoluble in water.
Example:
Keratin (hair, wool, silk & nails); Myosin (muscle)
(B) Globular Proteins
(a) These have more or less spherical shape (compact structure).

8. (b) α - amino helix are tightly held bonding; H – bonds, disulphide bridges, ionic
or salt bridges:
Examples:
Albumin (egg)
Classification According to functions
The functional classification includes following groups.
Structural proteins
These are the fibrous proteins such as collogen (skin, cartilage & bones) which hold living
system together.
Blood proteins
(i) The major proteins constituent of the blood are albumin hemoglobin & fibrinogen.
(ii) Their presence contribute to maintenance of osmotic pressure, oxygen transport
system & blood coagulation respectively.
BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF PROTIEN:
 To supply the essential amino acids for all cell formation in the building and repair of the body..
 To help maintain osmotic equilibrium between the blood and the tissue fluids.
 To provide energy and heat, but only when there is an insufficiency of carbohydrate in the diet.
 Some protein present in cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus of the cell act as receptors.
 The transport proteins carry out the function of transporting specific substances either across
membrane or in the body fluids.
 Storage protein bind with specific substances and store them, e.g. cytochrome hemoglobin,
myoglobin.
 Under certain condition of exerting osmotic pressure help in maintains of electrolyte and water
balance in body.
DEFINITION: An amino acid is a type of organic acid that contains an acid functional group
and an amine functional group on adjacent carbon atoms. Amino acids are considered to be the
building blocks of proteins.

9. BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF AMINO ACID:
 Amino acids can be metabolized to produce energy. This is especially
important during fasting, when the breakdown of muscle protein is a major
energy source.
 Some amino acids act as neurotransmitters, and some act as starting
materials for the biosynthesis of neurotransmitters, hormones, and other
important biochemical compounds.
 Amino acids are the primary building blocks for proteins.
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACID
Amino acid have been classified according to their neutral, acidic or basic nature.
NEUTRAL AMINO ACIDS:
These exhibit amphoteric nature. These contain one basic amino (-NH2) group
and one acidic (-COOH) group.
Example: NH2-CH2-COOH (GLYCINE)
ACIDIC AMINO ACIDS:
They exhibit acidic nature. they contain one basic amino(-NH2)groups.
Example: COOH-CH(NH2)-CH2-COOH (ASPARTIC ACID)
BASIC AMINO ACIDS: they exhibit basic nature.thy contain one acidic (-COOH)
group and more than one basic amino (-NH2) groups.
Example: COOH-CH(NH2)-(CH2)3-NH2 (LYSINE)
 Nucleic acids are large biological molecules essential for all known forms of life. They
include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA(ribonucleic acid). Together with proteins
nucleic acids are the most important biological macromolecules each is found in
abundance in all living things, where they function in encoding, transmitting and
expressing genetic information.

10. CLASSIFICATION :
 Deoxyribonucleic acid
 Ribonucleic acid
 DNA: DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all
other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is
located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can
also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).
 Ribonucleic acid : Ribonucleic acid is one of the two types of nucleic acids found in all
cells. The other is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). RNA transmits genetic information from
DNA to proteins produced by the cell.
BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF NUCLEIC ACID:
 Nucleic acids carry genetic information within their structure. All living things have some
form of nucleic acids, which allow for the translation of proteins in order to carry out
important functions of the cell.
 The nucleic acids most prominent within the human body system are DNA and RNA. These
materials are responsible for maintaining and reproducing the cells that make up the body.
They are involved in a number of processes which work to provide the materials needed for
cell repair and metabolism processes
PHARMACEUTICAL IMPORTANCE: