it includes blood, its components and function of individual components,RH incompatiblity

1. BLOODBLOODProvides a mechanism for rapid transport of
nutrients, waste products, respiratory gases and
cells
Powered by the pumping action of the heart

2. Functions Of BloodFunctions Of BloodTransportation - the blood transports dissolved
gases, nutrients, hormones and metabolic wastes.
Protection - the blood restricts fluid losses
through damaged vessels. Platelets in the blood
and clotting proteins minimize blood loss when a
blood vessel is damaged.
Regulation
◦ Blood regulates the pH and electrolyte
composition of the interstitial fluids.
◦ Blood regulates body temperature.

3. Composition Of BloodComposition Of Blood
Contains cellular and liquid components
A specialized connective tissue
◦ Blood cells – formed elements
◦ Plasma – fluid portion and fibrinogen
Blood volume
◦ Males: 5 – 6 liters
◦ Females: 4 – 5 liters
The pH of blood is about 7.35-7.45

4. Figure 19.1b
Composition of Whole BloodComposition of Whole Blood

5. Formed ElementsFormed Elements
Blood cells
◦ Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets
Staining of blood cells
◦ Acidic dye – eosin – stains pink
◦ Basic dye – methylene blue – stains blue and
purple

6. Blood PlasmaBlood Plasma
 Straw-colored, sticky fluid portion of blood
 Approximately 90% water
 Contains:
◦ Ions – Na+ and Cl-
◦ Nutrients – sugars, amino acids, lipids, cholesterol,
vitamins and trace elements
◦ Three main proteins - Albumin (60%), globulin (35%),
fibrinogen (4%)
◦ Dissolved Gasses – including O2 and CO2
◦ Waste Products – other protein wastes such as urea and
bilirubin

7. Overview: Composition of BloodOverview: Composition of Blood
Hematocrit – measure of % RBC
◦ Males: 47% ± 5%
◦ Females: 42% ± 5%
Figure 17.1

8. Wright’s StainWright’s Stain
Figure 17.2b

9. Erythrocytes – Red Blood CellsErythrocytes – Red Blood Cells
(RBCs)(RBCs)
Oxygen-transporting cells
◦ 7.5 µm in diameter (diameter of capillary 8 –
10µm)
Most numerous of the formed elements
◦ Females: 4.3 – 5.2 million cells/cubic millimeter
◦ Males: 5.2 – 5.8 million cells/cubic millimeter
Made in the red bone marrow in long bones,
cranial bones, ribs, sternum, and vertebrae
Average lifespan 100 – 120 days

10. RBC Structure And FunctionRBC Structure And FunctionHave no organelles or nuclei
Hemoglobin – oxygen carrying
protein
◦ Each RBC has about 280
million hemoglobin molecules
Biconcave shape – 30% more
surface area

11. 11
Red Blood Cell Production and Its Control
1. In the embryo and fetus, red blood cell
production occurs in the yolk sac, liver,
and spleen; after birth, it occurs in the
red bone marrow.
2. The average life span of a red blood cell
is 120 days.
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12. 12

13. 13
Destruction of Red Blood Cells
1. With age, red blood cells become
increasingly fragile and are damaged by
passing through narrow capillaries.
2. Macrophages in the liver and spleen
phagocytize damaged red blood cells.
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14. 14

15. 15
3. Hemoglobin from the decomposed red
blood cells is converted into heme and
globin.
4. Heme is decomposed into iron which is
stored or recycled and biliverdin and
bilirubin which are excreted in bile.
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16. 16
The total number of red blood cells
remains relatively constant due to a
negative feedback mechanism utilizing
the hormone erythropoietin, which is
released from the kidneys and liver in
response to the detection of low oxygen
levels.
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17. Leukocytes – White Blood CellsLeukocytes – White Blood Cells
(WBCs)(WBCs)
Protect the body from infectious
microorganisms
4,800 – 11,000/cubic millimeter
Function outside the bloodstream in loose
connective tissue
Diapedesis – circulating leukocytes leave the
capillaries
WBCs have a nucleus and are larger than RBCs
Most produced in bone marrow
Lifespan of 12 hours to several years

18. 18
White Blood Cell Counts
1. Normally a cubic milliliter of blood
contains 5,000 to 10,000 white blood
cells.
2. Leukocytosis occurs after an infection
when excess numbers of leukocytes are
present; leukopenia occurs from a
variety of conditions, including AIDS.
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19. White Blood CellsWhite Blood Cells
Type Of White Blood
Cells
% By Volume Of WBC Description Function
Neutrophils 60 – 70 % Nucleus has many
interconnected lobes; blue
granules
Phagocytize and destory
bacteria; most numerous
WBC
Eosinophils 2 – 4 % Nucleus has bilobed nuclei;
red or yellow granules
containing digestive
enzymes
Play a role in ending allergic
reactions
Basophils < 1 % Bilobed nuclei hidden by
large purple granules full of
chemical mediators of
inflammation
Function in inflammation
medication; similar in
function to mast cells
Lymphocytes (B Cells
and T Cells)
20 – 25 % Dense, purple staining,
round nucleus; little
cytoplasm
the most important cells of
the immune system;
effective in fighting infectious
organisms; act against a
specific foreign molecule
(antigen)
Monocytes 4 – 8 % Largest leukocyte; kidney
shaped nucleus
Transform into
macrophages; phagocytic
cells

20. Leukocytes – White Blood Cells (WBCs)Leukocytes – White Blood Cells (WBCs)
Two types of leukocytes
◦ Granulocytes
◦ Agranulocytes
Differential WBC Count
◦ Never
◦ Let
◦ Monkeys
◦ Eat
◦ Bananas
Figure 17.5

21. 21
Functions of White Blood Cells
1. Leukocytes can squeeze between cells
lining walls of blood vessels by
diapedesis and attack bacteria and
debris.
a. Neutrophils and monocytes are
phagocytic, with monocytes
engulfing the larger particles.
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22. 22

23. 23
b. Eosinophils moderate allergic
reactions as well as defend
against parasitic infections.
c. Basophils migrate to damaged
tissues and release histamine to
promote inflammation and
heparin to inhibit blood clotting.
d. Lymphocytes are the major
players in specific immune
reactions and some produce
antibodies.
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24. 24
3. A differential white blood cell count can
help pinpoint the nature of an illness,
indicating whether it is caused by
bacteria or viruses.
a. A differential white blood cell
count lists the percentages of the
types of leukocytes in a blood
sample.

25. GranulocytesGranulocytes
Neutrophils – most numerous WBC
◦ Phagocytize and destroy bacteria
◦ Nucleus – has two to six lobes
◦ Granules pick up acidic and basic stains
Figure 17.4a

26. Eosinophils – compose 1 – 4% of all
WBCs
◦ Play roles in ending allergic reactions, parasitic
infections
Figure 17.4b
Granulocytes

27. GranulocytesGranulocytes
Basophils – about 0.5% of all leukocytes
◦ Nucleus – usually two lobes
◦ Granules secrete histamines
◦ Function in inflammation mediation, similar in
function to mast cells

28. AgranulocytesAgranulocytes
 Lymphocytes – compose 20 – 45% of WBCs
◦ The most important cells of the immune system
◦ Nucleus – stains dark purple
◦ Effective in fighting infectious organisms
◦ Act against a specific foreign molecule (antigen)
 Two main classes of lymphocyte
◦ T cells – attack foreign cells directly
◦ B cells – multiply to become plasma cells that secrete
antibodies
Figure 17.4d

29. AgranulocytesAgranulocytes
Monocytes – compose 4–8% of WBCs
◦ The largest leukocytes
◦ Nucleus – kidney shaped
◦ Transform into macrophages
 Phagocytic cells
Figure 17.4e

30. Summary of Formed ElementsSummary of Formed Elements
Table 17.1

31. PlateletsPlatelets
 Structure
◦ Small cellular fragments; originate in bone
marrow from giant cell megakaryocyte
◦ Contain several clotting factors – calcium ions,
ADP, serotonin
Function
◦ Involved in stopping bleeding when a blood vessel
is damaged; Process is called hemostasis

32. 32
I. Blood Platelets
1. Blood platelets are fragments of
megakaryocytes.
2. Platelets help repair damaged blood
vessels by adhering to their broken
edges.
3. Normal counts vary from 130,000 to
360,000 platelets per mm3
.
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33. 33

34. 34
Blood Coagulation
1. Blood coagulation is the most effective
means of hemostasis.
2. Blood coagulation is very complex and
uses clotting factors.
3. Damaged tissues release a chemical
called tissue thromboplastin, which
activates the first in a series of factors
leading to the production of
prothrombin activator.
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35. 35
4. Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin
in the plasma into thrombin. This in turn,
catalyzes a reaction that converts fibrinogen
into fibrin.
5. The major event in blood clot formation
is the conversion of soluble fibrinogen
into net like insoluble fibrin causing the
blood cells to catch.
6. The amount of prothrombin activator
formed is proportional to the amount of
tissue damage.
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36. 36
7. Once a blood clot forms, it promotes
still more clotting through a positive
feedback system.
8. After a clot forms, fibroblasts invade
the area and produce fibers throughout
the clots.
9. A clot that forms abnormally in a vessel
is a thrombus; if it dislodges, it is an
embolus.
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38. 38
 Blood Groups and Transfusions
A. After mixed success with transfusions,
scientists determined that blood was of
different types and only certain combinations
were compatible.
B. Antigens and Antibodies
1. Clumping of red blood cells following
transfusion is called agglutination.
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39. 39
2. Agglutination is due to the interaction
of proteins on the surfaces of red
blood cells (antigens) with certain
antibodies carried in the plasma.
3. Only a few of the antigens on red blood
cells produce transfusion reactions.
a. These include the ABO group
and Rh group.
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40. 40
C. ABO Blood Group
1. Type A blood has A antigens on red
blood cells and anti-B antibodies in the
plasma.
2. Type B blood has B antigens on red
blood cells and anti-A antibodies in the
plasma.
3. Type AB blood has both A and B
antigens, but no antibodies in the
plasma.
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41. 41
4. Type O blood has neither antigen, but
both types of antibodies in the plasma.
5. Adverse transfusion reactions are
avoided by preventing the mixing of
blood that contains matching antigens
and antibodies.
a. Adverse reactions are due to the
agglutination of red blood cells.
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43. 43
D. Rh Blood Group
1. The Rh factor was named after the
rhesus monkey.
2. If the Rh factor surface protein is
present on red blood cells, the blood is
Rh positive; otherwise it is Rh negative.
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44. 44
3. There are no corresponding antibodies
in the plasma unless a person with Rh-
negative blood is transfused with Rh-
positive blood; the person will then
develop antibodies for the Rh factor.
4. Erythroblastosis fetalis develops in Rh-
positive fetuses of Rh-negative mothers
but can now be prevented.
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45. 45

46. Blood Cell FormationBlood Cell Formation
 Hematopoiesis – process by which blood cells are formed
 100 billion new blood cells formed each day
 Takes place in the red bone marrow of the humerus, femur, sternum, ribs,
vertebra and pelvis
◦ Red marrow – actively generates new blood cells
 Contains immature erythrocytes
 Remains in epiphyses, girdles, and axial skeleton
◦ Yellow marrow – dormant
 Contains many fat cells
 Located in the long bones of adults
◦ Tissue framework for red marrow
 Reticular connective tissue

47. Cell Lines in Blood Cell FormationCell Lines in Blood Cell Formation
All blood cells originate in bone marrow
All originate from one cell type
◦ Blood stem cell (pluripotential hematopoeitic
stem cell)
 Lymphoid stem cells - give rise to lymphocytes
 Myeloid stem cells - give rise to all other blood
cells

48. Cell Lines in Blood Cell FormationCell Lines in Blood Cell Formation Genesis of erythrocytes
◦ Committed cells are
proerythroblasts
◦ Remain in the reticulocyte
stage for 1–2 days in
circulation
◦ Make up about 1–2% of all
erythrocytes
 Formation of leukocytes
◦ Granulocytes form from
myeloblasts
◦ Monoblasts enlarge and
form monocytes
 Platelet-forming cells from
megakaryoblasts, break apart
into platelets

49. The Blood Throughout LifeThe Blood Throughout Life
First blood cells develop with the earliest
blood vessels
Mesenchyme cells cluster into blood
islands
Late in the second month the liver and
spleen take over blood formation
Bone marrow becomes major
hematopoietic organ at month 7

50. RBC life span and circulationRBC life span and circulation
Replaced at a rate of approximately 3 million new
blood cells entering the circulation per second
Damaged or dead RBCs are recycled by
phagocytes
Components of hemoglobin individually recycled
◦ Heme stripped of iron and converted to biliverdin,
then bilirubin
Iron is recycled by being stored in phagocytes, or
transported throughout the blood stream bound
to transferrin

51. Figure 19.5
Red Blood CellTurnoverRed Blood CellTurnover