Basic pricipals of geology md. yousuf gazi
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The document outlines several basic principles and laws of geology, including: 1. Neptunism and plutonism, which are opposing theories on the formation of rocks. 2. Uniformitarianism, the principle that geological processes have remained consistent over time. 3. Laws established by Nicolaus Steno on the ordering and orientation of rock layers. 4. Additional principles on cross-cutting relationships, inclusions, and faunal succession.
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One of the most well-known laws is the Law of Superposition, which states that in an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rock layers, the oldest layers are at the bottom and the youngest layers are at the top. This principle forms the basis for understanding the temporal sequence of events within a site.
Another important principle is the Law of Original Horizontality, which asserts that sedimentary layers are originally deposited in horizontal or nearly horizontal layers. This law aids archaeologists in interpreting the original orientation of geological strata and helps identify any subsequent tilting or folding that may have occurred.
The Law of Lateral Continuity states that layers of sediment extend laterally in all directions until they thin out or encounter a barrier. This principle is crucial for correlating strata across different areas of a site.
The Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships helps determine the relative ages of geological features by examining their relationships with one another. Features such as faults, intrusions, or erosional surfaces that cut across existing layers are younger than the layers they intersect.
The Law of Faunal Succession and the Law of Biotic Succession rely on the principle that fossil organisms and biological communities succeed one another in a determinable order. By analyzing the fossil record and the succession of plant and animal species, archaeologists can infer relative ages of strata.
Overall, the Law of Stratigraphy provides archaeologists with essential tools for interpreting the temporal sequences of archaeological sites and constructing relative chronologies. These principles are fundamental to the practice of archaeology and are utilized in conjunction with other dating methods to reconstruct past human activities and environmental changes.
Laws of stratigraphy
This document discusses the key principles of stratigraphy, which is the branch of geology that studies the layers of rock in the Earth's crust and the history they record. It outlines several important principles including superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity, crosscutting relationships, and fossil succession. These principles are used to interpret the relative ages of rock layers and the geological events they provide evidence of, such as mountain building, climate change, and evolution of plant and animal life over time. Examples are given to illustrate principles like unconformities, folding, faulting, and how they impact the interpretation of rock sequences.
Seismology & earthquake md. yousuf gazi
Seismology is the study of earthquakes and how seismic waves propagate through the Earth. Studying earthquakes provides clues about the Earth's interior and allows us to minimize earthquake damage. Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of accumulated stress in rocks along faults. Seismic waves from earthquakes are recorded by instruments around the world and used to determine the earthquake location and magnitude.
Evolution part II
This document discusses several lines of evidence that support the theory of evolution, including:
1. The fossil record provides evidence of major changes in climate, geography, and organisms over geological time. While incomplete, it offers a clear picture of evolution for many species.
2. Comparative anatomy finds similarities between living organisms, like homologous and vestigial structures, that support their common descent with modification over time.
3. Biochemical evidence, like similarities in DNA and cell processes across species, also indicates common ancestry rather than independent origin of life forms.
4. The modern synthesis integrates genetics with natural selection and models ancestral relationships between organisms as a branching tree of descent.
Historyoftheearth
The document summarizes key concepts in geology, including:
1) The formation of the solar system from a nebula of dust and gas around 4.5 billion years ago, which led to the formation of the Sun and planets through gravitational attraction and other processes.
2) Methods for determining the age of the Earth including absolute radiometric dating techniques that measure radioactive decay and relative dating principles like superposition and cross-cutting relationships.
3) The use of fossils to provide temporal and paleoecological information about Earth's history and environmental conditions of different periods. Index fossils in particular help date and classify rock layers.
Earth surface processes md. yousuf gazi
The document discusses various geological processes that shape the Earth's surface. It describes two main types of geological processes - endogenetic processes that occur inside the Earth's crust like earthquakes and volcanoes, and exogenetic processes like weathering and erosion that occur at the Earth's surface. Weathering is further explained as the breakdown of rocks through physical or chemical means. The key agents that cause weathering are frost action, crystal growth in cracks, and chemical reactions with oxygen, water and carbon dioxide.
Part 5 geology - gradulaism or catastrophism
1) The document discusses the geologic column and its origins, noting that it was originally devised by catastrophist creationist geologists in the early 19th century, not evolutionists.
2) It discusses several common misconceptions about the geologic column, including that its order is not always consistent globally and that physical appearance alone cannot reliably assign rock layers to their position in the column.
3) Reliable assignment of rock layers to their position is best done through bed-to-bed comparison to known system types, not just through fossil evidence.
123
The document discusses three geological principles:
1) The Principle of Uniform Processes states that the same physical and chemical processes that shape the Earth today have always operated in the past, though not necessarily at the same rates.
2) The principle of faunal succession establishes that sedimentary rock layers contain fossils that succeed each other vertically in a consistent order, allowing strata to be identified and dated by their fossil content.
3) The superposition principle notes that the net response of a linear system to multiple stimuli is the sum of the individual responses to each stimulus alone.
7-HISTORY OF THE EARTH.pptx
The document discusses the history of the Earth and methods used to determine geological timescales. It describes how rocks form records of past events and processes. Early scientists estimated the age of the Earth to be between 24-100 million years based on studies of heat loss and sodium accumulation in oceans. The principle of uniformitarianism states that past and present geological processes were similar. Relative dating methods order events but do not provide absolute ages. Radiometric dating using radioactive isotopes provides absolute ages and was used to construct the geologic timescale in eras, periods, and epochs marked by significant events in Earth's history.
What is Geoscience?Objectives.
This document provides an introduction to the field of geoscience/geology. It discusses key topics like the formation of rocks through igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic processes. It also covers plate tectonics theory and how the motion of tectonic plates generates earthquakes. The objectives of the course are to understand rock and mineral formation, Earth's structure and composition, sea floor spreading via plate tectonics, landforms, and natural hazards like earthquakes.
Earth and life Science (Origin of the Universe and Star System, Earth System,...
This document provides information on Earth and life science topics including the formation of the universe, formation of star systems, and the Earth system. It discusses the prevailing Big Bang theory of the origin and evolution of the universe. It also describes theories for the formation of star systems such as the nebular hypothesis. The Earth system is described as having four interconnected subsystems: the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Each subsystem is then defined and key aspects are outlined, such as the internal structure of the geosphere and importance of the hydrosphere.
150 branches of geology
Geology is the scientific study of the all constituents of planets, their internal and external forms and processes. More precisely, it is the study of nature, structure and history of the planet. Earth is the home to all life, well known to the humankind. Geology, itself, is a major part of The Earth and atmospheric sciences, which were born as twins . The subject of geology encompasses all aspects including the composition, structure, physical properties, and history of a planets'( like Earth's) inter-related components and the processes that are shaping the features on the surface. Geologists are the scientists who study the origin, occurrence, distribution and utilities of all materials(metallic, non-metallic, inorganic, etc), minerals, rocks, sediments, soils, water, oil and all other inorganic natural resources. It is a very vast subject covering a wide spectrum of scientific principles and holding hundred and fifty plus scientific branches. This report enumerates and highlights most of them, in a nutshell, for all those who intends to know for planning their career path.
Page 1 1.1 IntroductIonThe average introductory geolog.docx
Page | 1
1.1 IntroductIon
The average introductory geology student’s perception of geology normally in-
volves the memorization of rocks and discussions of natural disasters, but Geology
contains so much more. Geology is the study of our planet, which is vital to our ev-
eryday lives from the energy we use, to the growing of the food we eat, to the foun-
dations of the buildings we live in, to the materials that are used to make everyday
objects (metals and plastics). The ideal place to start this course is discussing the
methods that are used to better understand our planet, the processes that shape it,
and its history.
Science is not a set of facts to remember. Instead it is a method to discover
the world around us. You are likely already familiar with the Scientific Method,
but it is worthwhile to review the process. The first step of the scientific method
is making an observation or learning the background surrounding the question in
which you are interested. This can be done by taking classes on a subject matter
as you are doing presently in geology or by simply taking careful notes about your
surroundings. Based on your knowledge and observations, you can then make a
hypothesis, which is a testable prediction on how something works. A hypothesis
should be framed in a way that is easy to test and prove wrong. This might sound
odd, but science works to rigorously disprove a hypothesis and only those that
withstand the tests become accepted. The wonderful aspect of this definition of a
hypothesis is that the testing results in a brand new observation that can then be
used to formulate a new hypothesis. Therefore, whether the hypothesis is verified
or rejected it will lead to new information. The next step is communication to other
scientists. This allows other scientists to repeat the experiment as well as alter it in
new and unthought-of ways that can then expand on the original idea. These few
steps encompass the vast majority of the scientific method and the career of any
individual scientist. As hundreds of related observations and tested hypotheses
accumulate scientists can formulate a theory. The scientific meaning of a theory is
an explanation for a natural phenomenon that is supported by a wealth of scientific
1 Introduction to Physical GeologyBradley Deline
Page | 2
Introductory GeoloGy IntroductIon to physIcal GeoloGy
data. A theory is not yet a law because there still may be some debate on the exact
workings of the theory or the reasons why a phenomenon occurs, but there is little
debate on the existence of what is being described.
This leads us back to Geology, the scientific study of the Earth. There are as-
pects in geology that are directly testable, but others are not and geologists must
become imaginative in discovering aspects about the earth and its history that we
will never be able to directly observe. In this laboratory manual we will discuss the
materials that make up the ear.
Similar to Basic pricipals of geology md. yousuf gazi (20)
Earth and life Science (Origin of the Universe and Star System, Earth System,...
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Page 1 1.1 IntroductIonThe average introductory geolog.docx
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Bangladesh has over 734 km of coastline along the Bay of Bengal with a population of around 50 million people living in the coastal zone. The coastline is difficult with many rivers and is affected by natural hazards like cyclones. The coastal zone is classified into interior and exterior coasts and three regions: eastern, central, and western. Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) aims to balance environmental, economic, and social concerns through a coordinated management process. ICZM in Bangladesh focuses on managing coastal resources and people sustainably while addressing issues like population growth, infrastructure needs, and environmental challenges.
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Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
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Chapter 4
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Basic pricipals of geology md. yousuf gazi
- 1. Basic Principals/Laws of Geology Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 2. Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 3. Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 4. Basic Principals of Geology: 1. Neptunism: Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749-1817) 2. Plutonism: James Hutton (1726-1797) 3. Catastrophism: James Ussher (1581-1656) 4. Uniformitarianism: James Hutton (1726-1797) 5. Law of Superposition: Nicolaus Steno (1638-1687) 6. Law of Original Lateral Continuity: Nicolaus Steno (1638-1687) 7. Law of Original Horizontality: Nicolaus Steno (1638-1687) 8. Law of Cross-cutting Relationships: Charles Lyell (1797-1875) 9. Principle of Inclusions: Charles Lyell (1797-1875) 10. Principle of Faunal Succession: William Smith (1769-1839) Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 5. William Smith Father of Historical Geology Charls Lyell Werner James Hutton Father of modern Geology Nicolaus Steno Father of Geology Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd) James Usher
- 6. Principles of Historical Geology Neptunism vs. Plutonism Neptunism: Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749-1817): The theory states that the rocks of the Earth's crust consists of materials deposited from, or crystallized out of the ocean. Plutonism: James Hutton (1726-1797): The concept of the formation of crystalline rocks by solidification from a melt or magma. Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 7. Uniformitarianism: James Hutton (1726-1797): The fundamental principle that geological processes and natural laws now operating to modify the Earth's crust have acted in much the same manner (gradual) and with essentially the same intensity throughout geologic time, and that past geologic events can be explained by forces observable today. "The present is the key to the past" Principles of Historical Geology Catastrophism vs. Uniformitarianism Catastrophism: James Ussher (1581-1656): The doctrine that sudden violent, short-lived, more or less worldwide events outside our present experience or knowledge have greatly modified the Earth's crust accounting for its present configuration as well as for the observed distribution of life forms. Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 8. Catastrophism Uniformitarianism Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 9. Law of Superposition Nicolaus Steno (1638-1687) ▪ In a series of undeformed sedimentary rocks: Oldest rocks are at the bottom (D) - deposited first; Youngest rocks are on the top (A) - deposited last. Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 10. Law of Original Lateral Continuity Nicolaus Steno (1638-1687) • When they form, horizontal strata continue in all directions until they: • Thin to nothing, • Change into something else, • Abut against a barrier. Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 11. Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 12. Law of Original Horizontality Nicolaus Steno (1638-1687) • Sedimentary rocks are formed in layers (strata) which were originally horizontal. • Flat strata are probably undisturbed • Tilted strata have been affected by tectonics. Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 13. Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships Charles Lyell (1797-1875) • Crosscutting igneous rocks are younger than what they intrude. • Faults are younger than what they cut. Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 14. • Erosion surfaces exist in the rock record. • Fragments within strata above are derived from the older strata below → they are older than the strata containing them. • The strata containing the fragments are younger than the strata the fragments came from. Principle of Inclusions Charles Lyell (1797-1875) Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 15. ▪ Fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite, determinable order. Principle of Faunal Succession William Smith (1769-1839) • Plants and animals evolve through time and specific fossils are often diagnostic of geologic periods. Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 16. Principle of Faunal Succession William Smith (1769-1839) Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 17. Geologic Time Time – a manmade concept; based on recurrent natural phenomenon Why is time important? - To place events into context, i.e. when and for how long did an event take place Geologic Time – Geological events arranged in relation to time Relative Dating - The age of a rock, fossil, or other feature measured relative to another. Absolute Dating (numerical dating) - The age of a rock in years. Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 18. Basis of Relative Dating • Superposition • Lateral Continuity • Original Horizontality • Inclusions • Cross-cutting Relationships • Fossil Records: • Based on evolution • Also relics of superposition • When a species becomes extinct, it does not reappear. Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 19. • Radioactive decay - spontaneous transformation of an element to another isotope of the same element or another element. Alpha Decay – loss of a positively charged He ion Beta Decay – neutron splits into zproton and electron • Isotope - element with different number of neutrons in the nucleus. • Half life - The fixed period of time during which half the parent atoms present in a closed system decay to form daughter atoms. Radioactive Dating Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 20. Radioactive isotope Stable isotope of other element Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 21. Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
- 22. Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)