Considering malaria is a highly devastating disease of mankind, total eradication of malaria seems to be an uphill task, the only relief from this disease is achieved by usage of antimalarial drugs. Since malaria is associated with humans from time immemorial, usage of traditional substances to most presently effective antimalarial have been recorded to cure this disease. With the advent of modern biological techniques aided the understanding of the biochemical pathways of antimalarial metabolism thereby helping in designing successful usage of many antimalarials. Nevertheless, improper usages of certain drugs have led to the origin and spread of drug resistant malaria parasites (chloroquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum). Also, the genetic basis of antimalarial metabolism in humans is now well understood and frequent mutations in genes of malarial parasites are well associated with drug resistance. The entire scenario of antimalarial usage in the field have become complicated, partly due to poor understanding between antimalarial metabolism in humans and drug fighting mechanism in parasites, by which resistance to even combined therapy (e.g. Artemisinin Combination Therapy) have started emerging. Vital basic understanding from human and parasite population genetics (involving antimalarial both metabolizing genes in human and resistant genes in parasite) could be an ideal starting point to malaria control.
Estimation of Phytochemical Components from Cassia Tora and To Study Its Larv...inventionjournals
1) The document summarizes a study that estimated the phytochemical components and larvicidal activity of Cassia tora seeds against Anopheles stephensi mosquito larvae.
2) Cassia tora seed extracts with concentrations of 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, and 0.4% were tested against the mosquito larvae. The 0.4% concentration resulted in 80% mortality of the larvae.
3) Phytochemical analysis of the seed extract found the presence of saponins, glycosides, proteins, tannins, and carbohydrates. The study suggests Cassia tora may be an effective and safe potential source for controlling mosquitoes.
Analysis of H5N1 Influenza Data in Indonesia and the Needs for Improvement - ...Tata Naipospos
Indonesia has experienced widespread H5N1 avian influenza in poultry and 100 human cases. The virus is endemic in birds across 31 of 33 provinces. Three distinct viral sublineages circulate in different regions of Indonesia. Analysis of viral genetics shows the virus spread across the archipelago along trade routes and evolved distinct regional groups. Improved control of poultry movement and vaccination are needed to reduce virus spread and environmental load.
Youyou Tu P.R. 2015 re Artemisinin, MalariaJohn Tye
The 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded for discoveries of novel therapies for devastating parasitic diseases. William Campbell and Satoshi Omura discovered avermectin, which was developed into the drug ivermectin to treat river blindness and lymphatic filariasis. Youyou Tu discovered artemisinin from the plant Artemisia annua, an effective treatment for malaria that reduces mortality rates. These discoveries have revolutionized treatment of parasitic diseases and improved global health.
Global veterinary and medical perspectives on one healthJess Vergis
This document discusses the concepts of One Health and the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health. It outlines how increased human population, urbanization, agricultural intensification, and encroachment into wildlife habitats have contributed to the emergence of zoonotic diseases. Over 60% of infectious diseases are zoonotic, with 71.8% originating from wildlife. The document then examines the historical foundations of comparative medicine and the development of veterinary science and its role in public health. It discusses how the One Health approach aims to address modern problems through cross-sectoral collaboration between medical, veterinary, and environmental professionals.
The One Health approach recognizes that human health, animal health, and environmental health are interconnected. It aims to attain optimal health for people, animals, and the environment through collaboration across multiple disciplines. Key agencies like FAO, OIE, and WHO have developed strategic frameworks to foster cooperation between sectors. Case studies demonstrate how delayed or lack of coordination between human and animal health sectors increased costs and impacted control of diseases like Nipah virus. Antimicrobial resistance is another issue that requires a One Health approach.
Beyond Three Circles proposes an enhanced One Health model with three key points:
1. The history of One Health dates back to ancient Greek physician Hippocrates and 19th century physician Rudolph Virchow who both recognized the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health.
2. Traditional practices in West Africa, such as burial rituals, contributed to the spread of Ebola during the 2014-2016 outbreak by facilitating human-to-human transmission. Addressing socio-cultural factors is important for controlling disease outbreaks.
3. A holistic One Health approach considers the interrelationships between human, animal, and environmental health as well as sociocultural practices, requiring collaboration across multiple
Estimation of Phytochemical Components from Cassia Tora and To Study Its Larv...inventionjournals
1) The document summarizes a study that estimated the phytochemical components and larvicidal activity of Cassia tora seeds against Anopheles stephensi mosquito larvae.
2) Cassia tora seed extracts with concentrations of 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, and 0.4% were tested against the mosquito larvae. The 0.4% concentration resulted in 80% mortality of the larvae.
3) Phytochemical analysis of the seed extract found the presence of saponins, glycosides, proteins, tannins, and carbohydrates. The study suggests Cassia tora may be an effective and safe potential source for controlling mosquitoes.
Analysis of H5N1 Influenza Data in Indonesia and the Needs for Improvement - ...Tata Naipospos
Indonesia has experienced widespread H5N1 avian influenza in poultry and 100 human cases. The virus is endemic in birds across 31 of 33 provinces. Three distinct viral sublineages circulate in different regions of Indonesia. Analysis of viral genetics shows the virus spread across the archipelago along trade routes and evolved distinct regional groups. Improved control of poultry movement and vaccination are needed to reduce virus spread and environmental load.
Youyou Tu P.R. 2015 re Artemisinin, MalariaJohn Tye
The 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded for discoveries of novel therapies for devastating parasitic diseases. William Campbell and Satoshi Omura discovered avermectin, which was developed into the drug ivermectin to treat river blindness and lymphatic filariasis. Youyou Tu discovered artemisinin from the plant Artemisia annua, an effective treatment for malaria that reduces mortality rates. These discoveries have revolutionized treatment of parasitic diseases and improved global health.
Global veterinary and medical perspectives on one healthJess Vergis
This document discusses the concepts of One Health and the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health. It outlines how increased human population, urbanization, agricultural intensification, and encroachment into wildlife habitats have contributed to the emergence of zoonotic diseases. Over 60% of infectious diseases are zoonotic, with 71.8% originating from wildlife. The document then examines the historical foundations of comparative medicine and the development of veterinary science and its role in public health. It discusses how the One Health approach aims to address modern problems through cross-sectoral collaboration between medical, veterinary, and environmental professionals.
The One Health approach recognizes that human health, animal health, and environmental health are interconnected. It aims to attain optimal health for people, animals, and the environment through collaboration across multiple disciplines. Key agencies like FAO, OIE, and WHO have developed strategic frameworks to foster cooperation between sectors. Case studies demonstrate how delayed or lack of coordination between human and animal health sectors increased costs and impacted control of diseases like Nipah virus. Antimicrobial resistance is another issue that requires a One Health approach.
Beyond Three Circles proposes an enhanced One Health model with three key points:
1. The history of One Health dates back to ancient Greek physician Hippocrates and 19th century physician Rudolph Virchow who both recognized the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health.
2. Traditional practices in West Africa, such as burial rituals, contributed to the spread of Ebola during the 2014-2016 outbreak by facilitating human-to-human transmission. Addressing socio-cultural factors is important for controlling disease outbreaks.
3. A holistic One Health approach considers the interrelationships between human, animal, and environmental health as well as sociocultural practices, requiring collaboration across multiple
The One Health Center aims to improve global health through an integrated approach addressing connections between human, animal, food, and environmental factors. Its mission is to assess and respond to health problems at this human-animal-environment interface through multidisciplinary and collaborative efforts. Key areas of research and intervention include improved water management, poultry immunization, disease surveillance, food safety, and combating malnutrition. A signature project will pilot interventions in these areas in Uganda to evaluate the added benefits of One Health approaches.
Malaria status & challenges of the epidemicGreenFacts
Malaria is one of the most common infectious diseases and a great public health problem worldwide. About one million people die each year from malaria, and half of the world's population lives in areas where there is a risk of getting the disease through the bites of infected mosquitoes.
What is being done to control the spread of malaria? Can the disease be eradicated?
The research aims to design and develop novel bacteriocin peptides as an alternative therapeutic approach to treat malaria by overcoming drug resistance. The objectives are to screen bacteriocin libraries for toxicity and anti-Plasmodium activity, select bacteriocins that inhibit the asexual blood stage of P. falciparum, and optimize bacteriocins' anti-parasite activity by analyzing structures and motifs. This strategy seeks to discover novel bacteriocin domains that can increase antimalarial effectiveness. The research would help provide safe and affordable treatment options to reduce the global malaria burden and economic costs, especially in developing regions facing emerging drug resistance.
Therapeutic uses of plant species for inflammation-related conditions in Limp...Premier Publishers
Impaired inflammatory response could result in undesirable effects as seen in chronic diseases such as tuberculosis (TB) and cancer. This study was based on an ethno-botanical survey of 6literature citations of medicinal plants used to treat inflammation-related conditions in Limpopo province of South Africa. Plant species belonging to the Fabaceae family are mostly used for these purposes, representing 16.1% of the recorded plants species. The root was the preferred plant part (50.9%) used for inflammation-related conditions, followed by the leaves (18.4%), stem bark (16.7%), whole plant (9.6%), the bulbs (3.5%) and the seed (0.9%) consecutively. The same plant species or a different part thereof is sometimes used to treat inflammation caused by different ailments. Traditional medicine continues to play a vital role in meeting the health care needs of people in under-resourced areas such as the Limpopo province. However, a curious finding in this review is the dearth of information on the traditional uses and exploitability of Harpagophytum procumbens. Extracts from H. procumbens are well known for their anti-inflammatory activities. Controlled harvesting of H. procumbens could potentially provide the much needed income for the people in the areas of the Limpopo province where this plant species is available.
A promising role of insecticide treated bed nets (it ns) against malaria a wa...Alexander Decker
This document discusses the promising role of insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) in combating malaria. ITNs have proven effective at reducing malaria transmission by protecting people from infected mosquito bites and reducing vector populations. While early global malaria eradication efforts from the 1950s-1960s saw some success, the program was ultimately discontinued due to a lack of resources and surveillance in Africa. More recently, there has been increased funding and a scale-up of ITN distribution across Africa, with over 30% of households owning at least one net by 2008. However, challenges remain in fully achieving global targets for malaria prevention and treatment. ITNs remain a core intervention for reducing the malaria burden in endemic regions like sub-Sah
Brief Overview of Global and Regional HPAI Situation 2011Tata Naipospos
The document provides an overview of the global and regional situation of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1. It discusses how the virus has been circulating in poultry and wild birds in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Middle East since 2003. While some countries have regained HPAI-free status, the virus remains endemic in poultry in 5 countries and there are still sporadic outbreaks occurring. Human cases also continue to occur sporadically wherever the virus is present in poultry. The majority of poultry outbreaks and human cases have been concentrated in a few Southeast Asian countries. Live bird markets and cross-border trade are risk factors contributing to the virus's persistence in
This document presents the results of a comparative study on vaccination in Akkalkuwa, India. The study collected data from 76 children ages 3 months to 10 years from a residential campus. The results found that 80% of people had completed vaccination, with over 70% receiving all routine vaccines except the vitamin A booster. However, some people avoided vaccination due to costs, unavailability of experts or vaccines, past side effects, or lack of awareness. The study concluded that improving access to affordable and expert vaccination in government hospitals could boost child health and reduce costs.
Malaria Control & the RTS,S Vaccine-under-trial: Matters Arising by Dr. IdokokoAbraham Idokoko
The document discusses malaria control and the RTS,S vaccine currently under trial. It provides an overview of the global malaria situation, the situation in sub-Saharan Africa and Nigeria specifically. It outlines the key components of malaria control including case management, vector control methods, and monitoring and evaluation. Progress made in malaria control from 2000-2011 is highlighted, along with current challenges such as funding shortages and insecticide and drug resistance. The development of malaria vaccines including the RTS,S vaccine currently undergoing trials is also discussed.
High prevalence of DR-TB (drug-resistant tuberculosis): An Indicator of publi...Madiha Mushtaque
Tuberculosis (TB) is among the 10 most common worldwide causes of mortality. In Pakistan, estimated 510,000 tuberculosis patients had been diagnosed with an occurrence of 276/100,000. As per most recent global TB report 2018, Pakistan is amongst the 30 countries high TB with drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis particularly MDR (multi-drug resistant strains). A retrospective study had been designed using DR-TB patients’ records from January 2013 to the December 2017 year from a public sector hospital in Karachi. Overall 315 drug-resistant tuberculosis patient’s data had been incorporated in the study. All data had been analyzed using SPSS version 16 software. Chi-square test had been used to analyze the data with CI (confidence interval) 95% and level of significance 5%. The study result showed that 64.1% MDR patients, 27.9% MTB rifampicin resistance, 4.8% mono-drug resistant , XDR(1.6%), 1% poly-drug resistant and only 0.6% are MDR suspects showing no association of DR-TB with gender (p-value 0.787), age group (p-value 0.757), treatment outcomes (p-value 0.549), year of registration( p-value 0.206), first line treatment history(p-value 0.643) with a 95% confidence interval. The drug resistance TB cases have been periodically rising every year. Early identification is required to reduce the percent mortality and inhibit the disease transmission.
Unusual causes of emergence of antimicrobial drug resistanceBhoj Raj Singh
Overuse and misuse of antibiotics have long been believed to fuel antimicrobial resistance (AMR), but new research shows that simply lowering consumption is not enough. Poor sanitation, corruption and low public health spending have a bigger role in pushing up drug-resistant infections in low- and middle-income countries, including India.
Contributions of Animal Research to Public Health FINALEva Quintero
Animal research has contributed significantly to public health throughout history. Key developments include vaccines for polio and other diseases, antibiotics, and Louis Pasteur's rabies vaccine. Animal models are important because many animals, like mice and pigs, share anatomical and genetic similarities with humans, making them suitable for studying human diseases. New medical advancements continue to emerge from animal research, such as robotic surgery techniques developed using pig models. Overall, responsible animal research has improved human and animal health and led to many life-saving advances.
This document provides an overview of intestinal parasites and their diagnosis. It discusses protozoa like Entamoeba histolytica and helminths that can infect the human gastrointestinal tract. Entamoeba histolytica is highlighted as it is the only protozoan species known to cause disease. It has two forms - an invasive, pathogenic form that can lead to amebiasis, and a non-invasive, commensal form. The life cycle and morphology of Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites and cysts are described. Symptoms of intestinal and extra-intestinal amebiasis are also outlined.
Wagner College Forum for Undergraduate Research, Vol. 18 No. 2Wagner College
The Spring 2020 issue contains papers by: Alexandra Ruth Elder; Graham Schmelzer; Maria D’Amico, Nicole Doherty and Iman Eulinberg; Gina LaRosa; Jeanine Woody; and Paige Tolbard.
One Health approaches: Genesis, implementation and best practicesILRI
The document discusses One Health approaches and their implementation. It provides the following key points:
1. One Health aims to achieve optimal health outcomes for humans, animals and the environment through cross-sectoral collaboration. It addresses challenges like zoonotic diseases which affect both human and animal health.
2. Implementing One Health in practice involves mapping disease burdens, ensuring food safety, and understanding barriers and enablers. The "unlucky 13" zoonoses cause billions of cases and millions of deaths annually.
3. There are significant economic benefits to controlling zoonotic diseases through a One Health approach compared to working in isolation. An estimated $137 billion in annual benefits could be gained from a
This document presents a mathematical model to eliminate malaria transmission by breaking the life cycle of Anopheles mosquitoes. The model introduces two natural enemies - copepods to prey on mosquito larvae and tadpoles to prey on pupae. Differential equations were derived to model the growth of each mosquito life stage from egg to adult when under attack by these predators. Stability analysis of the disease-free equilibrium was conducted using equilibrium points, Beltrami's conditions, and Diekmann's conditions. The results indicate that introducing copepods and tadpoles makes the disease-free equilibrium stable, meaning the mosquito life cycle would be broken and no adult mosquitoes emerge to transmit malaria.
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research...iosrphr_editor
This study evaluated the efficacy of combination therapy using extracts of Annona senegalensis and Eucalyptus camaldulensis in treating T. b. brucei infected mice. A combination of extracts from the two plants in a 1:1 ratio cleared parasites from the blood of one mouse within 2 weeks and the mouse survived over 3 months without parasites. Histopathological examination of organs from the surviving mouse showed damage to the liver and kidneys. The study concludes that the combination of extracts has potential for developing drug combinations to overcome parasite resistance, though it caused long-term organ damage.
Is “Pangolin (Manis Squama) is not used in medicine" an improvement in the pr...LucyPi1
Recently, a number of reports about pangolin have become hot news: The Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2020 edition) has not continued to include the drug-using standards for pangolin (Manis Squama), aristolochic (Aristolochia debilis Sieb. et Zucc), celestial vine (Fibraurea recisa Pierre), and Chinese patent drug Huanglian Yanggan pills (approval number by China State Food and Drug Administration: Z200113194). On June 5, 2020, the China Forestry Administration Bureau and the Grassland Bureau co-issued an announcement to upgrade all the species of genus pangolins from the national second level of the protected wildlife to the first level. The new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) is also highly similar to the beta coronavirus isolated from pangolin [1]. For a time, “Pangolin is not used in medicine” triggered a hot topic of discussion among the public and the industry. The reason is that China is protecting the precious and rare species from the policy level? Or is it a delayed strategy in the safety of medication? It is worth pondering
Malaria is caused by a parasite called Plasmodium, which is transmitted via the bites of infected mosquitoes. In the human body, the parasites multiply in the liver, and then infect red blood cells.
The One Health Center aims to improve global health through an integrated approach addressing connections between human, animal, food, and environmental factors. Its mission is to assess and respond to health problems at this human-animal-environment interface through multidisciplinary and collaborative efforts. Key areas of research and intervention include improved water management, poultry immunization, disease surveillance, food safety, and combating malnutrition. A signature project will pilot interventions in these areas in Uganda to evaluate the added benefits of One Health approaches.
Malaria status & challenges of the epidemicGreenFacts
Malaria is one of the most common infectious diseases and a great public health problem worldwide. About one million people die each year from malaria, and half of the world's population lives in areas where there is a risk of getting the disease through the bites of infected mosquitoes.
What is being done to control the spread of malaria? Can the disease be eradicated?
The research aims to design and develop novel bacteriocin peptides as an alternative therapeutic approach to treat malaria by overcoming drug resistance. The objectives are to screen bacteriocin libraries for toxicity and anti-Plasmodium activity, select bacteriocins that inhibit the asexual blood stage of P. falciparum, and optimize bacteriocins' anti-parasite activity by analyzing structures and motifs. This strategy seeks to discover novel bacteriocin domains that can increase antimalarial effectiveness. The research would help provide safe and affordable treatment options to reduce the global malaria burden and economic costs, especially in developing regions facing emerging drug resistance.
Therapeutic uses of plant species for inflammation-related conditions in Limp...Premier Publishers
Impaired inflammatory response could result in undesirable effects as seen in chronic diseases such as tuberculosis (TB) and cancer. This study was based on an ethno-botanical survey of 6literature citations of medicinal plants used to treat inflammation-related conditions in Limpopo province of South Africa. Plant species belonging to the Fabaceae family are mostly used for these purposes, representing 16.1% of the recorded plants species. The root was the preferred plant part (50.9%) used for inflammation-related conditions, followed by the leaves (18.4%), stem bark (16.7%), whole plant (9.6%), the bulbs (3.5%) and the seed (0.9%) consecutively. The same plant species or a different part thereof is sometimes used to treat inflammation caused by different ailments. Traditional medicine continues to play a vital role in meeting the health care needs of people in under-resourced areas such as the Limpopo province. However, a curious finding in this review is the dearth of information on the traditional uses and exploitability of Harpagophytum procumbens. Extracts from H. procumbens are well known for their anti-inflammatory activities. Controlled harvesting of H. procumbens could potentially provide the much needed income for the people in the areas of the Limpopo province where this plant species is available.
A promising role of insecticide treated bed nets (it ns) against malaria a wa...Alexander Decker
This document discusses the promising role of insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) in combating malaria. ITNs have proven effective at reducing malaria transmission by protecting people from infected mosquito bites and reducing vector populations. While early global malaria eradication efforts from the 1950s-1960s saw some success, the program was ultimately discontinued due to a lack of resources and surveillance in Africa. More recently, there has been increased funding and a scale-up of ITN distribution across Africa, with over 30% of households owning at least one net by 2008. However, challenges remain in fully achieving global targets for malaria prevention and treatment. ITNs remain a core intervention for reducing the malaria burden in endemic regions like sub-Sah
Brief Overview of Global and Regional HPAI Situation 2011Tata Naipospos
The document provides an overview of the global and regional situation of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1. It discusses how the virus has been circulating in poultry and wild birds in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Middle East since 2003. While some countries have regained HPAI-free status, the virus remains endemic in poultry in 5 countries and there are still sporadic outbreaks occurring. Human cases also continue to occur sporadically wherever the virus is present in poultry. The majority of poultry outbreaks and human cases have been concentrated in a few Southeast Asian countries. Live bird markets and cross-border trade are risk factors contributing to the virus's persistence in
This document presents the results of a comparative study on vaccination in Akkalkuwa, India. The study collected data from 76 children ages 3 months to 10 years from a residential campus. The results found that 80% of people had completed vaccination, with over 70% receiving all routine vaccines except the vitamin A booster. However, some people avoided vaccination due to costs, unavailability of experts or vaccines, past side effects, or lack of awareness. The study concluded that improving access to affordable and expert vaccination in government hospitals could boost child health and reduce costs.
Malaria Control & the RTS,S Vaccine-under-trial: Matters Arising by Dr. IdokokoAbraham Idokoko
The document discusses malaria control and the RTS,S vaccine currently under trial. It provides an overview of the global malaria situation, the situation in sub-Saharan Africa and Nigeria specifically. It outlines the key components of malaria control including case management, vector control methods, and monitoring and evaluation. Progress made in malaria control from 2000-2011 is highlighted, along with current challenges such as funding shortages and insecticide and drug resistance. The development of malaria vaccines including the RTS,S vaccine currently undergoing trials is also discussed.
High prevalence of DR-TB (drug-resistant tuberculosis): An Indicator of publi...Madiha Mushtaque
Tuberculosis (TB) is among the 10 most common worldwide causes of mortality. In Pakistan, estimated 510,000 tuberculosis patients had been diagnosed with an occurrence of 276/100,000. As per most recent global TB report 2018, Pakistan is amongst the 30 countries high TB with drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis particularly MDR (multi-drug resistant strains). A retrospective study had been designed using DR-TB patients’ records from January 2013 to the December 2017 year from a public sector hospital in Karachi. Overall 315 drug-resistant tuberculosis patient’s data had been incorporated in the study. All data had been analyzed using SPSS version 16 software. Chi-square test had been used to analyze the data with CI (confidence interval) 95% and level of significance 5%. The study result showed that 64.1% MDR patients, 27.9% MTB rifampicin resistance, 4.8% mono-drug resistant , XDR(1.6%), 1% poly-drug resistant and only 0.6% are MDR suspects showing no association of DR-TB with gender (p-value 0.787), age group (p-value 0.757), treatment outcomes (p-value 0.549), year of registration( p-value 0.206), first line treatment history(p-value 0.643) with a 95% confidence interval. The drug resistance TB cases have been periodically rising every year. Early identification is required to reduce the percent mortality and inhibit the disease transmission.
Unusual causes of emergence of antimicrobial drug resistanceBhoj Raj Singh
Overuse and misuse of antibiotics have long been believed to fuel antimicrobial resistance (AMR), but new research shows that simply lowering consumption is not enough. Poor sanitation, corruption and low public health spending have a bigger role in pushing up drug-resistant infections in low- and middle-income countries, including India.
Contributions of Animal Research to Public Health FINALEva Quintero
Animal research has contributed significantly to public health throughout history. Key developments include vaccines for polio and other diseases, antibiotics, and Louis Pasteur's rabies vaccine. Animal models are important because many animals, like mice and pigs, share anatomical and genetic similarities with humans, making them suitable for studying human diseases. New medical advancements continue to emerge from animal research, such as robotic surgery techniques developed using pig models. Overall, responsible animal research has improved human and animal health and led to many life-saving advances.
This document provides an overview of intestinal parasites and their diagnosis. It discusses protozoa like Entamoeba histolytica and helminths that can infect the human gastrointestinal tract. Entamoeba histolytica is highlighted as it is the only protozoan species known to cause disease. It has two forms - an invasive, pathogenic form that can lead to amebiasis, and a non-invasive, commensal form. The life cycle and morphology of Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites and cysts are described. Symptoms of intestinal and extra-intestinal amebiasis are also outlined.
Wagner College Forum for Undergraduate Research, Vol. 18 No. 2Wagner College
The Spring 2020 issue contains papers by: Alexandra Ruth Elder; Graham Schmelzer; Maria D’Amico, Nicole Doherty and Iman Eulinberg; Gina LaRosa; Jeanine Woody; and Paige Tolbard.
One Health approaches: Genesis, implementation and best practicesILRI
The document discusses One Health approaches and their implementation. It provides the following key points:
1. One Health aims to achieve optimal health outcomes for humans, animals and the environment through cross-sectoral collaboration. It addresses challenges like zoonotic diseases which affect both human and animal health.
2. Implementing One Health in practice involves mapping disease burdens, ensuring food safety, and understanding barriers and enablers. The "unlucky 13" zoonoses cause billions of cases and millions of deaths annually.
3. There are significant economic benefits to controlling zoonotic diseases through a One Health approach compared to working in isolation. An estimated $137 billion in annual benefits could be gained from a
This document presents a mathematical model to eliminate malaria transmission by breaking the life cycle of Anopheles mosquitoes. The model introduces two natural enemies - copepods to prey on mosquito larvae and tadpoles to prey on pupae. Differential equations were derived to model the growth of each mosquito life stage from egg to adult when under attack by these predators. Stability analysis of the disease-free equilibrium was conducted using equilibrium points, Beltrami's conditions, and Diekmann's conditions. The results indicate that introducing copepods and tadpoles makes the disease-free equilibrium stable, meaning the mosquito life cycle would be broken and no adult mosquitoes emerge to transmit malaria.
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research...iosrphr_editor
This study evaluated the efficacy of combination therapy using extracts of Annona senegalensis and Eucalyptus camaldulensis in treating T. b. brucei infected mice. A combination of extracts from the two plants in a 1:1 ratio cleared parasites from the blood of one mouse within 2 weeks and the mouse survived over 3 months without parasites. Histopathological examination of organs from the surviving mouse showed damage to the liver and kidneys. The study concludes that the combination of extracts has potential for developing drug combinations to overcome parasite resistance, though it caused long-term organ damage.
Is “Pangolin (Manis Squama) is not used in medicine" an improvement in the pr...LucyPi1
Recently, a number of reports about pangolin have become hot news: The Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2020 edition) has not continued to include the drug-using standards for pangolin (Manis Squama), aristolochic (Aristolochia debilis Sieb. et Zucc), celestial vine (Fibraurea recisa Pierre), and Chinese patent drug Huanglian Yanggan pills (approval number by China State Food and Drug Administration: Z200113194). On June 5, 2020, the China Forestry Administration Bureau and the Grassland Bureau co-issued an announcement to upgrade all the species of genus pangolins from the national second level of the protected wildlife to the first level. The new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) is also highly similar to the beta coronavirus isolated from pangolin [1]. For a time, “Pangolin is not used in medicine” triggered a hot topic of discussion among the public and the industry. The reason is that China is protecting the precious and rare species from the policy level? Or is it a delayed strategy in the safety of medication? It is worth pondering
Malaria is caused by a parasite called Plasmodium, which is transmitted via the bites of infected mosquitoes. In the human body, the parasites multiply in the liver, and then infect red blood cells.
Este documento proporciona información sobre 38 unidades militares que ofrecen plazas en el primer ciclo de 2014. Para cada unidad se incluye el código de plaza, la ubicación, el número de plazas ofertadas, las notas de corte en diferentes listas y cuántas plazas se han cubierto tras los procesos de depuración.
O documento descreve um projeto para ensinar estudantes a usar a internet de forma responsável e cidadã. O projeto inclui discutir redes sociais, pesquisar sites governamentais sobre direitos do cidadão, e desenvolver uma consciência crítica sobre o uso da internet.
Para facer os nosos primeiros logos con GIMP, podemos usar a ferramenta logos, onde están prediseñados unha serie de funcións para conseguir os teus primeiros resultados.
Na versión 2.8 estes son os modelos que podes utilizar sin necesidade de programar. Na maioría son persoalizables o fondo, texturas, tamaño do texto e font.
Imos pois a Ficheiro >> Crear >> Logos .
This document provides information about Openbravo's live development builds that are updated daily. It lists the different build instances available including the erp/devel/pi and erp/devel/main PostgreSQL and Oracle builds, the erp/stable/2.50 PostgreSQL and Oracle retail builds, and several published ERP MPs for PostgreSQL. These live builds are reset once per day for testing purposes.
El documento presenta un proyecto del Colegio Nacional "San Carlos" de Monsefú para promover la artesanía, las danzas y el patrimonio histórico de la región a través de la difusión de la cultura local, incluyendo actividades como el bordado monsefuano, el patrimonio de Monsefú y un circuito moche, con el objetivo de resaltar las tradiciones artesanales de la zona como los sombreros, bordados, cerámica y canastas y reafirmar a Monsefú como una
Este documento presenta una lista de 12 pacientes con sus respectivos nombres completos, número de cédula de identidad, dirección, teléfono, estado civil y edad. La información se presenta en una tabla con columnas para cada dato personal.
This document does not contain any meaningful information to summarize in 3 sentences or less. It consists of random letters and does not convey any essential facts, details, or ideas that could be extracted to create a useful summary.
Este documento proporciona una lista de enlaces a recursos en línea sobre temas relacionados con la administración, incluyendo definiciones de plan de contingencia, gestión de calidad total, teorías y métodos de administración como Kaizen, Justo a Tiempo y PERT. La bibliografía incluye enlaces a Wikipedia, blogs y sitios web sobre historia, importancia, conceptos y elementos de la administración.
Este documento parece ser um modelo de folha de pontos para registro de horas trabalhadas, dividido em seções para preenchimento de dados como horário, horas normais, extras e observações para cada mês. Há também campos para informações sobre subsídios e feriados.
Care for a family member with Alzheimer's disease need not prevent from taking care of yourself or your family. Ease the stress through community support.
O documento apresenta uma sugestão de atividade de leitura e escrita para turmas de 7o ano com o objetivo de trabalhar questões diagnosticadas como de maior dificuldade. A atividade será desenvolvida ao longo de uma semana e envolverá análise do filme "Os Cavaleiros da Távola Redonda", leitura e interpretação de um texto sobre o Rei Artur, além da produção de uma narrativa de aventura medieval.
Malaria remains one of the deadliest diseases globally, killing nearly 1 million people annually. In 1998, the Roll Back Malaria Partnership was created by the WHO, UNICEF, World Bank, and UNDP to combat malaria through coordinated control, prevention, and treatment efforts. While RBM has achieved some successes like saving over 1 million lives, it continues to struggle with inadequate funding to meet its goals of eventually eradicating malaria. The document explores RBM's history and efforts to address the extensive social, economic, environmental, and public health challenges posed by malaria.
Strategies for control and prevention of Malaria.pptxSalimAbubakar4
This document is a seminar paper on malaria written by Abubakar Musa Zumoni. It discusses the introduction, epidemiology, prevention, treatment, control measures, and conclusions regarding malaria. Malaria is caused by Plasmodium parasites transmitted via mosquito bites. It affects 300-500 million people annually, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, where it is a major cause of death. Prevention methods include insecticide treated nets, indoor residual spraying, and chemoprophylaxis. Treatment differs for uncomplicated and complicated cases, utilizing drugs like chloroquine, mefloquine, and quinine. Controlling mosquito breeding sites and biological controls can help prevent the spread of malaria.
This is a CLC assigment, I have attached topic 1, 2 and 3 , APA form.docxgasciognecaren
This is a CLC assigment, I have attached topic 1, 2 and 3 , APA format, 3 references, 500 words
This is a Collaborative Learning Community (CLC) assignment.
In your Collaborative Learning Community, write a formal paper of 500-1,000 words that examines the previously addressed aspects of health policies, finance, global/national prevention, or treatment initiatives related to the health issue by identifying applicable ethics principles.
Differentiate how application of the identified ethics principles to the health issue has resulted in population disparities.
Hypothesize how existing disparities might be eliminated using alternate ethics principles.
Critique whether the applicable ethics principles are consistent with the ANA's Code of Ethics for Nurses.
Topic 1
Influenza CLC group essay 11-28-2017
Introduction
Influenza commonly known as flu is a contagious respiratory infection that attacks the general respiratory system that is, the nose, throat, and even the lungs. It is caused by the two types of influenza viruses which are influenza A, influenza B and influenza C (Wang & Tao, 2010). Attacks from both viruses are epidemic and seasonal as they are common within specific periods within a year. Attack mechanisms for influenza A viruses depends on the genes on the surface protein of a patient. They are normally spread through sneezing and coughing from an infected individual to the surrounding air (Wang & Tao, 2010).
The flu can also attack an individual in case they get into direct body tissue contact with an infected individual for example handshaking. Health professionals argue that the flu virus is stubborn and spreads mainly over tiny droplets which are produced when the infected individuals’ cough, talk, and sneeze (Wang & Tao, 2010). Such droplets are easily carried by the surrounding air and can be landed in the nose and mouths of the immediate persons. Additionally, it can enter into one’s system if he or she gets into direct contact with a surface or object that has the influenza bacteria and consequently rubs or touches their nose, mouth or even eyes (Wang & Tao, 2010).
Health departments have overtime identified initiative to address the problem of influenza, such initiatives include:
Reducing human exposure to the flu viruses, this initiative works by notifying the public on the safe ways to prevent and control the spread of the virus and it actively works to reduce infection opportunities and curbs the spread of the pandemic virus (Abramson, 2011).
They have built able capacities to cope with the pandemic, measures have been taken and put in place to cope with the virus since helping the society to stay free from the virus (Abramson, 2011).
They have innovated much on early warning and acknowledgments, information about influenza and its impacts to the society are made clear since it is effective for the society to stay free from the influenza virus (Abramson, 2011).
Necessary global scientific researches ...
Malaria is a serious global health issue caused by parasites transmitted via mosquito bites. It is responsible for millions of deaths each year, especially among young children. While some drug treatments exist, development of new medicines has been lacking. However, a recently patented treatment using colloidal silver has shown promise in resolving malaria symptoms within five days. This over-the-counter formulation could provide an affordable and accessible option for those at risk of contracting malaria.
The document describes an experimental workshop protocol to investigate vaccine candidates for malaria. Participants will use ELISA techniques to analyze blood samples from individuals living in malaria-endemic areas and determine if they have developed an immune response to different candidate antigens. This will help identify the most effective vaccine candidates, as antigens that elicit antibodies in immune individuals are most likely to protect against future infection. The protocol involves binding antigens to wells, adding serum and labeled secondary antibodies to form complexes, then detecting the reaction with a colored substrate. Comparing results will reveal the antigen activating the strongest immune response, making it the best potential vaccine candidate.
Use of herbal medicine in the management of malaria in the urban periphery, g...Razak Mohammed Gyasi
This document summarizes a study on the use of herbal medicine in the management of malaria in Ghana. The study analyzed data from 189 malaria patients and 5 herbal medicine practitioners in the Kwabre East District of Ghana. The results showed that 95 (50.3%) of patients used herbal therapy for malaria treatment. Factors significantly associated with herbal medicine use included perceived lower side effects, cost-effectiveness, efficacy, and availability. Herbal practitioners were experienced with treating malaria and had extensive knowledge of medicinal plants. The study recommends further research on the safety and quality of medicinal plants used to treat malaria and other diseases.
This document provides an overview of vaccine drug delivery systems. It begins with an introduction that defines what a vaccine is and its three main forms. The history section outlines the development of important early vaccines including the world's first vaccine for smallpox developed by Edward Jenner in 1796. Key points about the ideal characteristics of vaccines and the advantages and disadvantages of various vaccine types are summarized. The document also briefly discusses mechanisms of vaccine uptake, quality control aspects, global vaccination trends, and concludes with references.
This document provides an overview of malaria, including its epidemiology, history, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and global eradication efforts. It discusses how malaria is caused by protozoa and transmitted by mosquitoes. It highlights past Nobel Prize winners for their work on malaria and summarizes current strategies to control and eliminate the disease, including through vaccines, insecticides, drugs, and improved access to care.
The document discusses World Malaria Day and the theme of harnessing innovation to reduce the malaria disease burden. It provides definitions and descriptions of malaria, including that it is caused by Plasmodium parasites and transmitted via infected Anopheles mosquitoes. It discusses the history of malaria, magnitude of the problem globally and in India, epidemiological determinants like parasite species, life cycle, host and environmental factors. It also summarizes diagnosis, treatment approaches, and the role of nurses in prevention and control of malaria through activities like health education, testing, and treatment adherence support.
Comparative study of the effectiveness of combination therapies based on atem...Open Access Research Paper
The National Malaria Control Program recommended in 1993, the use of Chloroquina (CQ) as first line drug for malaria treatment, and sulfadoxin pyrimethamin as second drug. After years, Benin knows resistance about these antimalarials. Quinina was to treat gravities. In 2004, the strategy of treatment changed. Treatment of malaria cases is based on use of arteminisinia therapeutic combination. The goal of this study is to be sure that these drugs are efficace before general use in the country and in some regions as Dassa Zounmè where the resistance is up (61. 3% for Chloroquina CQ and 45.9% for SP in 2002).The study is based on: comparison of therapeutic efficacy of artemether Lumefantrine and Artesunate Amodiaquine. Results show that all of the tested drugs have good therapeutic efficacy. Most important rate failure is in Dassa Zounmè (33, 86%) than Parakou (23, 44%). They are parasitologic failure and are probably due to the reinfestation of children. Two drugs have a good parasitological clearance and eliminate fever after 2 days of treatment.
The document summarizes the evolution of malarial drugs from the first drug quinine derived from tree bark in the 1800s to current efforts to develop new drugs. It describes the malaria parasite life cycle and challenges in treating different species and stages. A variety of drug classes have been developed that target various stages, from blood stages to dormant liver stages. However, resistance develops rapidly when drugs are used as monotherapy. Current efforts focus on new drug discovery, revisiting old drugs, and exploring drugs from other fields. Combination therapies and targeting transmission stages may help eliminate malaria.
Here are some key causes of malaria prevalence in Africa:
1. Poverty and lack of access to prevention/treatment: Many people in Africa live in poverty without access to mosquito nets, screens, antimalarial drugs, or medical care. This makes prevention and treatment of malaria extremely difficult.
2. Climate change: Rising temperatures expand the geographic range of malaria-carrying mosquitoes. Changes in rainfall patterns can lead to more standing water where mosquitoes breed. Climate change is contributing to increased transmission of malaria in many parts of Africa.
3. Conflict and instability: War and civil unrest force people to flee their homes and live in refugee camps or informal settlements that lack basic infrastructure and services. This makes prevention and
This is a Collaborative Learning Community (CLC) assignment.In y.docxgasciognecaren
This is a Collaborative Learning Community (CLC) assignment.
In your Collaborative Learning Community, write a paper of 500-1,000 words and include the following:
Discuss cultural beliefs and influences relative to the health issue.
Differentiate any religious/spiritual beliefs and values relative to the issue.
Appraise how religious/spiritual beliefs and values have influenced progress in addressing the issue–either negatively or positively.
Compare differences in ideologies related to the issue across political party lines, geographic regions, and countries of the world.
This is APA format aqt least 500 word, references. I have added all the topics that have been added so far, I have topics 1-4 added. the one that will worked on is Topic 5
Topic 1
Influenza CLC group essay 11-28-2017
Introduction
Influenza commonly known as flu is a contagious respiratory infection that attacks the general respiratory system that is, the nose, throat, and even the lungs. It is caused by the two types of influenza viruses which are influenza A, influenza B and influenza C (Wang & Tao, 2010). Attacks from both viruses are epidemic and seasonal as they are common within specific periods within a year. Attack mechanisms for influenza A viruses depends on the genes on the surface protein of a patient. They are normally spread through sneezing and coughing from an infected individual to the surrounding air (Wang & Tao, 2010).
The flu can also attack an individual in case they get into direct body tissue contact with an infected individual for example handshaking. Health professionals argue that the flu virus is stubborn and spreads mainly over tiny droplets which are produced when the infected individuals’ cough, talk, and sneeze (Wang & Tao, 2010). Such droplets are easily carried by the surrounding air and can be landed in the nose and mouths of the immediate persons. Additionally, it can enter into one’s system if he or she gets into direct contact with a surface or object that has the influenza bacteria and consequently rubs or touches their nose, mouth or even eyes (Wang & Tao, 2010).
Health departments have overtime identified initiative to address the problem of influenza, such initiatives include:
Reducing human exposure to the flu viruses, this initiative works by notifying the public on the safe ways to prevent and control the spread of the virus and it actively works to reduce infection opportunities and curbs the spread of the pandemic virus (Abramson, 2011).
They have built able capacities to cope with the pandemic, measures have been taken and put in place to cope with the virus since helping the society to stay free from the virus (Abramson, 2011).
They have innovated much on early warning and acknowledgments, information about influenza and its impacts to the society are made clear since it is effective for the society to stay free from the influenza virus (Abramson, 2011).
Necessary global scientific researches are being ca ...
In your Collaborative Learning Community, write a paper of 500-1,000.docxlanagore871
In your Collaborative Learning Community, write a paper of 500-1,000 words and include the following:
Assess the past and present impact nurses, including advanced professional/advanced practice nurses, have made in addressing this health issue.
Describe how nurses can become more broadly involved with influencing health policy related to this issue. Include resources available.
Hypothesize how nurses can positively impact future outcomes related to the provision of care for persons affected by the health issue.
Synthesize all aspects of the health care issue through a summary conclusion, concisely tying up Parts 1-6 of the CLC - Health Issue Analysis.
This is APA format, 3 references, I have attached topics 1-5 that is needed for this CLC project
Topic 1
Influenza CLC group essay 11-28-2017
Introduction
Influenza commonly known as flu is a contagious respiratory infection that attacks the general respiratory system that is, the nose, throat, and even the lungs. It is caused by the two types of influenza viruses which are influenza A, influenza B and influenza C (Wang & Tao, 2010). Attacks from both viruses are epidemic and seasonal as they are common within specific periods within a year. Attack mechanisms for influenza A viruses depends on the genes on the surface protein of a patient. They are normally spread through sneezing and coughing from an infected individual to the surrounding air (Wang & Tao, 2010).
The flu can also attack an individual in case they get into direct body tissue contact with an infected individual for example handshaking. Health professionals argue that the flu virus is stubborn and spreads mainly over tiny droplets which are produced when the infected individuals’ cough, talk, and sneeze (Wang & Tao, 2010). Such droplets are easily carried by the surrounding air and can be landed in the nose and mouths of the immediate persons. Additionally, it can enter into one’s system if he or she gets into direct contact with a surface or object that has the influenza bacteria and consequently rubs or touches their nose, mouth or even eyes (Wang & Tao, 2010).
Health departments have overtime identified initiative to address the problem of influenza, such initiatives include:
Reducing human exposure to the flu viruses, this initiative works by notifying the public on the safe ways to prevent and control the spread of the virus and it actively works to reduce infection opportunities and curbs the spread of the pandemic virus (Abramson, 2011).
They have built able capacities to cope with the pandemic, measures have been taken and put in place to cope with the virus since helping the society to stay free from the virus (Abramson, 2011).
They have innovated much on early warning and acknowledgments, information about influenza and its impacts to the society are made clear since it is effective for the society to stay free from the influenza virus (Abramson, 2011).
Necessary global scientific researches are being ...
The document discusses the elimination of Onchocerciasis (River Blindness) in Africa. It provides background on the disease, caused by the nematode Onchocerca volvulus and transmitted through blackfly bites. Two major interventions are described: 1) The Onchocerciasis Control Program from 1974-2002 focused on improving living conditions and preventing blindness initially through larvicide spraying and later adding annual Ivermectin treatment. 2) The African Program for Onchocerciasis Control continued these efforts from 1995-present across endemic areas of Africa, making progress toward elimination goals. The document evaluates the impact of interventions on reducing transmission and prevalence of the disease.
Introduction
Disease
Important Properties
Transmission & Epidemiology
Risk factor of reactivation
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Laboratory Diagnosis
Approaches to the diagnosis of latent infections
Treatment
Prevention
Emergence of Drug resistant microbes PPT By DR.C.P.PrinceDR.PRINCE C P
Antimicrobial resistance is resistance of a microorganism to an antimicrobial drug that was originally effective for treatment of infections caused by it.
Resistant microorganisms (including bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites) are able to withstand attack by antimicrobial drugs, such as antibacterial drugs (e.g. antibiotics), antifungals, antivirals, and antimalarials, so that standard treatments become ineffective and infections persist, increasing the risk of spread to others.
Similar to Antimalarial metabolization: what have we learnt so far? (20)
Evaluation of Agro-morphological Performances of Hybrid Varieties of Chili Pe...Premier Publishers
In Benin, chilli pepper is a widely consumed as vegetable whose production requires the use of performant varieties. This work assessed, at Parakou and Malanville, the performance of six F1 hybrids of chilli including five imported (Laali, Laser, Nandi, Kranti, Nandita) and one local (De cayenne), in completely randomized block design at four replications and 15 plants per elementary plot. Agro-morphological data were collected and submitted to analysis of variance and factor analysis of mixed data. The results showed the effects of variety, location and their interactions were highly significant for most of the growth, earliness and yield traits. Imported hybrid varieties showed the best performances compared to the local one. Multivariate analysis revealed that 'De cayenne' was earlier, short in size, thin-stemmed, red fruits and less yielding (≈ 1 t.ha-1). The imported hybrids LaaliF1 and KrantiF1 were of strong vegetative vigor, more yielding (> 6 t.ha-1) by developing larger, long and hard fruits. Other hybrids showed intermediate performances. This study highlighted the importance of imported hybrids in improving yield and preservation of chili fruits. However, stability and adaptation analyses to local conditions are necessary for their adoption.
An Empirical Approach for the Variation in Capital Market Price Changes Premier Publishers
The chances of an investor in the stock market depends mainly on some certain decisions in respect to equilibrium prices, which is the condition of a system competing favorably and effectively. This paper considered a stochastic model which was latter transformed to non-linear ordinary differential equation where stock volatility was used as a key parameter. The analytical solution was obtained which determined the equilibrium prices. A theorem was developed and proved to show that the proposed mathematical model follows a normal distribution since it has a symmetric property. Finally, graphical results were presented and the effects of the relevant parameters were discussed.
Influence of Nitrogen and Spacing on Growth and Yield of Chia (Salvia hispani...Premier Publishers
Chia is an emerging cash crop in Kenya and its production is inhibited by lack of agronomic management information. A field experiment was conducted in February-June and May-August 2021, to determine the influence of nitrogen and spacing on growth and yield of Chia. A randomized complete block design with a split plot arrangement was used with four nitrogen rates as the main plots (0, 40, 80, 120 kg N ha-1) and three spacing (30 cm x 15 cm (s1), 30 cm x 30 cm (s2), 50 cm x 50 cm (s3)). Application of 120 kg N ha-1 significantly increased (p≤0.05) vegetative growth and seed yield of Chia. Stem height, branches, stem diameter and leaves increased by 23-28%, 11-13%, 43-55% and 59-88% respectively. Spacing s3 significantly increased (p≤0.05) vegetative growth. An increase of 27-74%, 36-45% and 73-107% was recorded in number of leaves, stem diameter and dry weight, respectively. Chia yield per plant was significantly higher (p≤0.05) in s3. However, when expressed per unit area, s1 significantly produced higher yields. The study recommends 120 kg N ha-1 or higher nitrogen rates and a closer spacing of 15 cm x 30 cm as the best option for Chia production in Kenya.
Enhancing Social Capital During the Pandemic: A Case of the Rural Women in Bu...Premier Publishers
The document discusses a case study of enhancing social capital among rural women in Bukidnon Province, Philippines during the COVID-19 pandemic through a livelihood project. Key findings include:
1) Technical trainings provided by the project increased the women's knowledge, allowing them to generate additional household income through vegetable gardening during the pandemic.
2) The women's social capital, as measured by groups/networks, trust, and cooperation, increased by 15.5% from 2019 to 2020 through increased participation in their association.
3) Main occupations, income sources, and ethnicity influenced the women's social capital. The project enhanced social ties that empowered the rural women economically and socially despite challenges of the pandemic.
Impact of Provision of Litigation Supports through Forensic Investigations on...Premier Publishers
This paper presents an argument through the fraud triangle theory that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases is adequate for effective prosecution of perpetrators as well as corporate fraud prevention. To support this argument, this study operationalized provision of litigation supports through forensic audit and investigations, data mining for trends and patterns, and fraud data collection and preparation. A sample of 500 respondents was drawn from the population of professional accountants and legal practitioners in Nigeria. Questionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection and this was mailed to the respective respondents. Resulting responses were analyzed using the OLS multiple regression techniques via the SPSS statistical software. The results reveal that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations, fraud data mining for trends and patterns and fraud data collection and preparation for court proceedings have a positive and significant impact on corporate fraud prevention in Nigeria. This study therefore recommends that regulators should promote the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases in publicly listed firms in Nigeria, as this will help provide reports that are acceptable in court proceedings.
Improving the Efficiency of Ratio Estimators by Calibration WeightingsPremier Publishers
It is observed that the performances of most improved ratio estimators depend on some optimality conditions that need to be satisfied to guarantee better estimator. This paper develops a new approach to ratio estimation that produces a more efficient class of ratio estimators that do not depend on any optimality conditions for optimum performance using calibration weightings. The relative performances of the proposed calibration ratio estimators are compared with a corresponding global [Generalized Regression (GREG)] estimator. Results of analysis showed that the proposed calibration ratio estimators are substantially superior to the traditional GREG-estimator with relatively small bias, mean square error, average length of confidence interval and coverage probability. In general, the proposed calibration ratio estimators are more efficient than all existing estimators considered in the study.
Urban Liveability in the Context of Sustainable Development: A Perspective fr...Premier Publishers
Urbanization and quality of urban life are mutually related and however it varies geographically and regionally. With unprecedented growth of urban centres, challenge against urban development is more in terms of how to enhance quality of urban life and liveability. Making sense of and measuring urban liveability of urban places has become a crucial step in the context of sustainable development paradigm. Geographical regions depict variations in nature of urban development and consequently level of urban liveability. The coastal regain of West Bengal faces unusual challenges caused by increasing urbanization, uncontrolled growth, and expansion of economic activities like tourism and changing environmental quality. The present study offers a perspective on urban liveability of urban places located in coastal region comprising of Purba Medinipur and South 24 Parganas districts. The study uses the liveability standards covering four major pillars- institutional, social, economic and physical and their indicators. This leads to develop a City Liveability Index to rank urban places of the region, higher the index values better the urban liveability. The data for the purpose is collected from various secondary sources. Study finds that the eastern coastal region of the country covering state of West Bengal depicts variations in index of liveability determined by physical, economic, social and institutional indicators.
Transcript Level of Genes Involved in “Rebaudioside A” Biosynthesis Pathway u...Premier Publishers
Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni is a plant which has recently been used widely as a sweetener. This medicinal plant has some components such as diterpenoid glycosides called steviol glycosides [SGs]. Rebaudioside A is a diterpenoid steviol glycoside which is 300 times sweeter than table sugar. This study was done to investigate the effect of GA3 (50 mg/L) on the expression of 14 genes involved in Rebaudioside A biosynthesis pathway in Stevia rebaudiana under in vitro conditions. The expression of DXS remarkably decreased by day 3. Also, probably because of the negative feedback of GA3 on MEP-drived isoprenes, GGDS transcript level reached its lowest amount after GA3 treatment. The abundance of DXR, CMS, CMK, MCS, and CDPS transcripts showed a significant increase at various days after this treatment. A significant drop in the expression levels of KS and UGT85C2 is detected during the first day. However, expression changes of HDR and KD were not remarkable. Results revealed that the level of transcript of UGT74G1 and UGT76G1 up regulated significantly 4 and 2 times higher than control, respectively. However, more research needs to shed more light on the mechanism of GA3 on gene expression of MEP pathway.
Multivariate Analysis of Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze) Clones on Mor...Premier Publishers
Information on genetic variability for biochemical characters is a prerequisite for improvement of tea quality. Thirteen introduced tea clones characterized with objective; assessing tea clones based on morphological characters at Melko and Gera research stations. The study was conducted during 2017/18 cropping season on experimental plots in RCBD with three replications. Data recorded on morphological traits like days from pruning to harvest, height to first branch, stem diameter, leaf serration density, leaf length, leaf width, leaf size, petiole length, leaf ratio, internode length, shoot length, number of shoot, canopy diameter, hundred shoot weight, fresh leaf yield per tree. Cluster analysis of morphological trait grouped into four clusters indicated, the existence of divergence among the tested clones. The maximum inter-cluster distance was between clusters I and IV (35.27) while the minimum inter cluster distance was observed between clusters I and II (7.8).Principal components analysis showed that the first five principal components with eigenvalues greater than one accounted 86.45% for 15 morphological traits. Generally, the study indicated presence of variability for several morphological traits. However, high morphological variation between clones is not a guarantee for a high genetic variation; therefore, molecular studies need to be considered as complementary to biochemical studies.
Causes, Consequences and Remedies of Juvenile Delinquency in the Context of S...Premier Publishers
This research work was designed to examine nature of juvenile offences committed by juveniles, causes of juvenile delinquency, consequences of juvenile delinquency and remedies for juvenile delinquency in the context of Sub-Saharan Africa with specific reference to Eritrea. Left unchecked, juvenile delinquents on the streets engage in petty theft, take alcohol or drugs, rape women, rob people at night involve themselves in criminal gangs and threaten the public at night. To shed light on the problem of juvenile delinquency in the Sub-Saharan region data was collected through primary and secondary sources. A sample size of 70 juvenile delinquents was selected from among 112 juvenile delinquents in remand at the Asmara Juvenile Rehabilitation Center in the Eritrean capital. The study was carried out through coded self-administered questionnaires administered to a sample of 70 juvenile delinquents. The survey evidence indicates that the majority of the juvenile respondents come either from families constructed by unmarried couples or separated or divorced parents where largely the father is missing in the home or dead. The findings also indicate that children born out of wedlock, families led by single mothers, lack of fatherly role models, poor parental-child relationships and negative peer group influence as dominant causes of juvenile infractions. The implication is that broken and stressed families are highly likely to be the breeding grounds for juvenile delinquency. The survey evidence indicates that stealing, truancy or absenteeism from school, rowdy or unruly behavior at school, free-riding in public transportation, damaging the book of fellow students and beating other young persons are the most common forms of juvenile offenses. It is therefore, recommended that parents and guardians should exercise proper parental supervision and give adequate care to transmit positive societal values to children. In addition, the government, the police, prosecution and courts, non-government organizations, parents, teachers, religious leaders, education administrators and other stakeholders should develop a child justice system that strives to prevent children from entering deeper into the criminal justice process.
The Knowledge of and Attitude to and Beliefs about Causes and Treatments of M...Premier Publishers
Stigma and discrimination associated with mental illness are a common occurrence in the Sub-Saharan region including Eritrea. Numerous studies from Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that stigma and discrimination are major problems in the community, with negative attitudes and behavior towards people with mental illness being widespread. In order to assess the whether such negative attitudes persist in the context of Eritrea this study explored the knowledge and perceptions of 90 Eritrean university students at the College of Business and Economics, the University of Asmara regarding the causes and remedies of mental illness A qualitative method involving coded self-administered questionnaires administered to a sample of 90 university students to collecting data at the end of 2019. The survey evidence points that almost 50% of the respondents had contact with a mentally ill person suggesting that the significant number of the respondents experienced a first-hand encounter and knowledge of mental illness in their family and community. The findings show an overall greater science-based understanding of the causes of mental illness to be followed by recommended psychiatric treatments. The survey evidence indicates that the top three leading causes of mental illness in the context of Eritrea according to the respondents are brain disease (76%), bad events in the life of the mentally ill person (66%) and substance abuse or alcohol taking, smoking, taking drugs like hashish. (54%). The majority of the respondents have a very sympathetic and positive outlook towards mentally ill persons suggesting that mentally illness does not simply affect a chosen individual rather it can happen to anybody regardless of economic class, social status, ethnicity race and religion. Medical interventions cited by the majority of the respondents as being effective treatments for mental illness centered on the idea that hospitals and clinics for treatment and even cures for psychiatric disease. Changing perceptions of mental illnesses in Eritrea that paralleled the very caring and sympathetic attitudes of the sample university students would require raising public awareness regarding mental illness through education, using the mass media to raise public awareness, integrating mental health into the primary health care system, decentralizing mental health care services to increase access to treatment and providing affordable service to maintain positive treatment outcomes.
Effect of Phosphorus and Zinc on the Growth, Nodulation and Yield of Soybean ...Premier Publishers
This study investigated the effects of phosphorus and zinc on the growth, nodulation, and yield of two soybean varieties in Nigeria. Phosphorus application significantly affected growth, nodulation, yield, and some yield components, with 60 kg P2O5/ha giving the highest growth and yield. Phosphorus also increased nodulation, with 30 kg P2O5/ha providing the highest nodulation. Zinc application did not significantly affect most growth characters or nodulation, except for reducing plant height. Phosphorus increased soybean yield significantly to 1.9 t/ha compared to the control of 1.7 t/ha. Protein and oil contents were not significantly affected by phosphorus but were by zinc
Influence of Harvest Stage on Yield and Yield Components of Orange Fleshed Sw...Premier Publishers
A field experiment was conducted at Adami Tullu Agricultural Research Center in 2018 under rainfed condition with supplementary irrigation to determine the influence of harvest stage on vine yield and tuberous root yield of orange fleshed sweet potato varieties. The experiment consisted of four harvest stages (105, 120, 135 and 150 days after planting) and Kulfo, Tulla and Guntute varieties. A 4 X 3 factorial experiment arranged in randomized complete block design with three replications was used. Interaction of harvest stage and variety significantly influenced above ground fresh biomass, vine length, marketable tuberous root weight per hectare, commercial harvest index and harvest index. The highest mean values of above ground fresh biomass (66.12 t/ha) and marketable tuberous root weight (56.39 t/ha) were produced by Guntute variety harvested at 135 days after planting. Based on the results, it can be recommended that, farmers of the study area can grow Guntute variety by harvesting at 135 days after planting to obtain optimum vine and tuberous root yields.
Performance evaluation of upland rice (Oryza sativa L.) and variability study...Premier Publishers
This study evaluated 13 upland rice varieties over two locations in Ethiopia for yield and other traits. Significant differences were found among varieties for several traits. The highest yielding varieties were Chewaka, Hiddassie, and Fogera 1. Chewaka yielded 5395.8 kg/ha on average, 25.8-35% more than the check. Most varieties matured within 120-130 days. High heritability was found for days to heading, panicle length, and grain yield, indicating these traits can be easily improved through selection. Grain yield also had high genetic variation and heritability with genetic advance, suggesting yield can be improved through selection. This study identified variability that can be used
Response of Hot Pepper (Capsicum Annuum L.) to Deficit Irrigation in Bennatse...Premier Publishers
This study was conducted at Enchete kebele in Benna-Tsemay Woreda, South Omo Zone to evaluate the response of hot pepper to deficit irrigation on yield and water productivity under furrow irrigation system. The experiment comprised four treatments (100 % of ETc, 85% of ETc, 70 % of ETc and 50% of ETc), respectively. The experiment was laid out in RCBD and replicated four times. The two years combined yield results indicated that, the maximum total yield (20.38 t/ha) was obtained from 100% ETc while minimum yield (12.92 t/ha) was obtained from 50% of ETc deficit irrigation level. The highest WUE 5.22 kg/ha mm-1 was obtained from 50% of ETc. Treatment of 100% ETc irrigation application had highest benefit cost ratio (4.5) than all others treatments. Applying 50% of ETc reduce the yield by 37% when compared to 100 % ETc. Accordingly, to achieve maximum hot pepper yield in areas where water is not scarce, applying 100% ETc irrigation water application level throughout whole growing season under furrow irrigation system is recommended. But, in the study area water scarcity is the major limiting factor for crop production. So, it is possible to get better yield and water productivity of hot pepper when we apply 85% ETc irrigation water throughout growing season under furrow irrigation system.
Harnessing the Power of Agricultural Waste: A Study of Sabo Market, Ikorodu, ...Premier Publishers
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Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
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2. Antimalarial metabolization: what have we learnt so far?
Khan and Chand 002
Malaria is a devastating disease caused by different
Plasmodium species, Plasmodium falciparum,
Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium
malariae. Among the four species, Plasmodium
falciparum is the most virulent and is a major cause of
high morbidity and mortality in endemic regions (Boland,
2001). These parasites have complex life cycles in both
human host and vector (Hyde et al., 2007) that starts with
the inoculation of sporozoites into the human dermis
which further infects the liver within 1-2 hr and invade
hepatocytes, releasing merozoites in the blood stream.
These merozoites undergo rapid multiplication and forms
sexual stages that await ingestion by mosquitoes for
further development of zygote that develops into oocyst
forming thousands of sporozoites. Further, these
sporozoites migrate to the salivary glands of mosquitoes
and can be injected into new host upon next blood meal
(Hyde et al., 2007). In order to hinder the pathogenesis
and further transmission of malaria, each developmental
stage of the parasite represents potential target for the
development of antimalarial.
The most significant period in the history of malaria
control was started when a conference was organized by
World Health Organization, held in Kampala, Uganda in
1950 (Winstanley et al., 2004) which was named “Global
Malaria Eradication Programme”. Initially, the campaign
was started with the use of pesticide DDT and
chloroquine, which was found to be successful in regions
of low malaria transmission such as Sri Lanka, China,
Latin America, Southern Europe, southern part of the
United States, Southern region of Soviet Union (Sachs,
2002). Despite these successes, there was re-
emergence of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium
parasites and DDT-resistant Anopheles mosquitoes in
areas where it had been eliminated (Sachs, 2002). As a
consequence, the concept of malaria eradication was
dropped in favour of malaria control and the focus was
totally shifted on the development of cost effective drug
strategies. This programme was successful in countries
with developed economy like Thailand having better
health infrastructure (Chareonviriyaphap et al., 2000), but
it failed in poor tropical countries that resulted in the
withdrawal of Global eradication programme in 1972.
Furthermore, the dramatic increase in cases of malaria
led to the adoption of Roll Back Malaria (RBM) that was
launched by a consortium of World Health Organization,
World Bank, United Nation Development Programme and
United Nation Children‟s Fund (UNICEF) in 1998 (Brito,
2001).
Despite enormous efforts taken to eradicate and control
malaria, it is still uncontrollable mainly because of
poverty, low economic status and environmental
conditions (temperature and rainfall) that lead to
emergence of drug resistant parasites. In this review
article, progress in the study of different drug
metabolizing gene involved in antimalarial metabolism is
presented with special emphasis on their mode of action
and genetic overview.
History of Antimalarial usage
The effort for the eradication of malaria was started long
ago before the use of Chloroquine. Several remedies
were tried to treat malaria since time-immemorial which
were totally based on the superstitious thought such as,
opium laced beer, skull operations etc. In the nineteenth
century, the first antimalarial “Quinine” was extracted
from Cinchona bark and was used for more than 350
years to effectively treat malaria. It remained the
mainstay of antimalarials till 1920‟s, when more synthetic
antimalarials became available. Although, Quinine was
effective against malaria, the extraction cost was quite
high and it also causes side effects (Brito, 2001). During
this period, Chloroquine was introduced due to its
effectiveness against all forms of malaria and cheap
manufacturing cost. With the heavy usage of chloroquine,
the cases of resistant Plasmodium falciparum emerged
and become widespread in almost all areas of the world
(Wellems and Plowe, 2001). Moreover, in the twentieth
century, the discovery of Chinese herb “Qinghao” was
marked as one of the greatest discoveries in the scientific
world as its extracts form the basic ingredient for
artemisinin and its derivatives that were found to be more
effective than quinine. While quinine is effective against
mature parasite stages, artemisinin acts against all
asexual and sexual stages of parasites. Before
artemisinin could be declared as an ideal antimalarial
candidate, there was an emergence of artemisinin
resistant parasites outbreaks in regions of Southeast Asia
(Phyo et al., 2012). The emergence of resistivity to known
drugs ignited the idea of combination therapies. World
Health Organization has also recommended drug
combinations to delay the emergence and spread of drug
resistance. The first combination drug was “Fansidar”
formed by amalgamating Sulphadoxine and
Pyremethamine antimalarial compounds (Alessandro and
Buttiens, 2001). In recent years, WHO declared
artemisinin combination therapies (ACT) as a first line
treatment for uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum (Li
and Zhou, 2010).
Antimalarial drug metabolizing pathways
Since malaria is associated with humans from time
immemorial, usage of various traditional substances to
most presently effective drugs as antimalarial have been
documented. These drugs help in curing the disease but
at the same time persist in the body where they
accumulate to toxic level which led to adverse drug
reactions, therapeutic drug failure and susceptibility to
other diseases. These drugs need to be metabolized and
detoxified from the body as quickly as possible. Thus, the
3. Antimalarial metabolization: what have we learnt so far?
World J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 003
Figure 1. Antimalarials metabolized by drug metabolizing gene (a. Primaquine, b. Artemisinin, c. Proguanil, d. Dapsone, e. Amodiaquine, f.
Chloroquine, g. Clindamycin, h. Mefloquine, i. Halofantrine and j. Sulphadoxine).
effective metabolization and detoxification of drugs is key
to therapeutic drug efficacy and this is carried out via two
main reactions; Phase I and Phase II catalyzed by drug
metabolizing enzyme. While Phase I reaction is primarily
catalyzed by Cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP), Phase II
reactions are catalyzed by many enzymes viz.
Acetyltransferase, Gucuronosyltransferase, Glutathione-
s-transferase and Sulphotransferases (Goldstein and
Faleto, 1993). Furthermore, based on the effective
metabolization by drug metabolizing enzyme, some drugs
are metabolized by single enzyme (metoprolol by
CYP2D6), whereas, others involve two or more enzyme
for their metabolization (warfarin by CYP1A2, CYP2D6
and CYP3A4) (Lynch and Price, 2007). Hence, it was
observed that the effective action of drug to its target
mainly depends on its effective metabolization and
detoxification. In this review article, we have discussed
about the ten different antimalarial metabolized by one or
more drug metabolizing enzyme and their mode of action:
Primaquine: The antimalarial Primaquine is one of the
important drugs that is effective against the exo-
erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium
ovale and gametocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum
(Edwards et al., 1993).
Mode of action: Primaquine disrupts the metabolic
processes of Plasmodium mitochondria by interfering
with the function of ubiquinone as an electron carrier in
the respiratory chain (Hill et al., 2006).
Drug metabolizing enzyme: Primaquine is primarily
converted to metabolite carboxyprimaquine by CYP1A2
(Figure 1a). (Hill et al., 2006), and is also metabolized by
CYP3A4 (Kerb et al., 2009).
Artemisinin: Artemisinin is an antimalarial extracted from
Qinghao (blue-green herb) (Hsu, 2006) and is used in
severe malaria and is effective against all the blood
stages of Plasmodium falciparum including the youngest
(ring form) stage of the parasite (WHO, 2006).
Mode of action: - The endoperoxide bridge of Artemisinin
interacts with haem to produce free radicals that alkylate
protein and damage the micro-organelles and membrane
of the parasite. It also interrupts with the haemoglobin
catabolism system causing inhibition of haemoglobin
degradation and polymerization of haem to haemozoin
which is used by parasite as its nutritional requirements
(Pandey et al., 1999).
Drug metabolizing enzyme: Artemisinin is mainly
metabolized to dihydroartemisinin by CYP2B6 (Malhotra
et al., 2006; Figure 1b). However, the other metabolizing
enzymes also involved in the metabolism of artemisinin
are CYP3A4 and CYP2A6 (Svesson and Ashton, 1999).
Proguanil: Proguanil is an antimalarial drug used for the
treatment of malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum
(Pang et al., 1989).
Mode of action: - Proguanil inhibits dihydrofolate
reductase (DHFR) enzyme essential for synthesis of
parasite DNA (Boggild et al., 2007).
4. Antimalarial metabolization: what have we learnt so far?
Khan and Chand 004
Drug metabolizing enzyme: - Proguanil is converted to its
active metabolite Cycloguanil by CYP2C19 (Figure 1c).
Additionally, CYP3A4 have a limited role in the
metabolism of Proguanil to Cycloguanil (Brentano et al.,
1997).
Dapsone: - Dapsone is a 4, 4‟-diamnodiphenyl sulphone
and widely used for the treatment of Leprosy,
Chloroquine resistant malaria and Dermatitis
Herpetitiformis. It is effective against the treatment of
schizonticidal and gametocidal activity of Plasmodium
falciparum, but does not act against asexual form of the
Plasdmodium vivax. (Saha et al., 2003).
Mode of action: - Dapsone inhibits folic acid synthesis of
parasite by inhibiting DHFR enzyme (Tingle et al., 1997).
Drug metabolizing enzyme:-Dapsone is metabolized by
CYP2C9 (Tingle et al., 1997), CYP3A4 (Adedayo et al.,
1998) and NAT2 (Louet et al., 1999) (Figure 1d).
Amodiaquine: Amodiaquine is derived from quinoline
and is more effective as compared to chloroquine against
Plasmodium falciparum (Li et al., 2002).
Mode of action: The mode of action against the parasite
is same as that of chloroquine, by inhibiting
polymerization of haem and thus, inhibiting formation of
toxic haemozoin. (Hombhanje et al., 2004).
Drug metabolizing enzyme: - Amodiaquine is converted to
N-Desethylamodiaquine by CYP2C8 (Li et al., 2002;
Figure 1e).
Chloroquine: The quinoline containing antimalarials are
effective against malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum
(Krogstad et al., 1998).
Mode of action: Chloroquine is a dibasic drug, which
diffuses down the pH gradient and accumulates in the
acidic vacuole of the parasite Plasmodium. The high
intravacuolar concentration of chloroquine inhibits the
polymerization of the haem. As a result the haem which is
released during haemoglobin breakdown builds up to
poisonous levels, killing the parasite (Foley and Tilley,
1997).
Drug metabolizing enzyme: Chloroquine is metabolized
by CYP3A4 to N-desethylchloroquine (Cooper and
Magware, 2008, Figure 1f).
Clindamycin: Clindamycin is semisynthetic derivative of
Lincomycin and is effective against many species
including Plasmodium sp.(Lell and Kremsner, 2002).
Mode of action: Clindamycin slowly accumulates inside
the apicoplast of Plasmodium sp. and killing it ultimately
(Lell and Kremsner, 2002).
Drug metabolizing enzyme: Clindamycin is metabolized
by CYP3A4 to Clindamycin sulfoxide (Wynalda et al.,
2003, Figure 1g).
Halofantrine: A phenanthrene methanol derivative used
as antimalarial drugs against uncomplicated chloroquine
and multidrug resistant Plasmodium falciparum (Halliday
et al., 1995).
Mode of action: - Halofantrine is blood schizonticides and
affects only trophozoites and schizonts in the red blood
cells. It binds to ferriprotoporphyrin IX in red blood cells
affected by Plasmodium and form toxic complexes that
damage the parasite membrane (Nothdruft, 1993).
Drug metabolizing enzyme: - Halofantrine is metabolized
by CYP3A4 to N-debutylhalofantrine (Baune, 1999;
Figure 1h).
Mefloquine: -Mefloquine antimalarial is effective against
the chloroquine resistant strains of Plasmodium
falciparum (Riviere et al., 1985).
Mode of action:-The quinoline binds to high density
lipoproteins (HDL) in the serum and delivered to the
erythrocytes, where they interact with an erythrocyte
membrane protein stomatin and are then transferred to
the intracellular malaria parasite.
Drug metabolizing enzyme: - Mefloquine is metabolized
by CYP3A4 (Khaliq et al., 2001, Figure 1i).
Sulphadoxine: - Sulphadoxine is a sulphonamide and is
effective against Plasmodium falciparum. It is used in
combination with other drugs to treat malaria ((Seaton et
al., 2000).
Mode of action: - Sulphadoxine inhibits folic acid
biosynthesis by blocking the formation of dihydrofolic acid
and inhibiting dihydropteroate synthase (DHPS) enzyme
(Ridley et al., 2002).
Drug metabolizing enzyme: -Sulphadoxine is metabolized
by NAT2 (Fuchs, 2004; Melmon, 2000; Figure 1j).
Genetic overview of antimalarial metabolizing genes
Since the advent of new agricultural techniques, changes
in environmental condition, subsistence strategies and
dietary habits had sculpted the human genome that led to
the emergence of different complex diseases. In order to
cure or treat a disease, patients are administered drugs
that are chemical in nature, hence their metabolization
and detoxification in the body is essential. For effective
metabolization, human body is armed with drug
metabolizing enzyme for effective metabolization and
detoxification of exogenous and endogenous
compounds. We herewith, represented the detailed
information about the drug metabolizing gene located on
human chromosome with number of exons and introns
involved in metabolism of anti-malarials.
CYP1A subfamily: - In humans, there are two members
of CYP1A family: CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 that play a major
role in the biotransformation of food and environmental
pollutants. The human CYP1A2 is involved in the
metabolism of antimalarial primaquine and spans a gene
length of 7758 bp (Chromosome 15q24.1, position
5. Antimalarial metabolization: what have we learnt so far?
World J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 005
Figure 2. Gene location, Exon, Intron of drug metabolizing gene CYP1A2 located on human chromosome 15.
Figure 3. Gene location, Exon, Intron of drug metabolizing gene CYP2B6 located on human chromosome 19.
75041184 – 75048941) with 7 exons that codes for
protein of 516 amino acid (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) and
mainly expressed in the liver (Daly, 2003) (Figure 2).
CYP2B subfamily: The human CYP2B has only one
member CYP2B6 that play a significant role in the
metabolism of artemisinin. This gene spans a gene length
of 27058 bp (Chromosome 19q13.2, position 41497204-
41524301) with 9 exon (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) that
codes for protein of 491 amino acid
(www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, Figure 3) which is highly
expressed in liver, but also expressed in the brain, small
intestine, kidney and lung (Nagata, 2002).
CYP2C subfamily: The human CYP2C has four members
viz., CYP2C18, CYP2C19, CYP2C9, and CYP2C8
clustered at human chromosome 10q24. These four
subfamily shares less than 82% amino acid identity and
significantly contribute in different ways to metabolize
drugs. Out of these four; CYP2C19, CYP2C9 and
6. Antimalarial metabolization: what have we learnt so far?
Khan and Chand 006
Figure 4. Gene location, Exon, Intron of drug metabolizing gene (A) CYP2C8, (B) CYP2C9 and (C) CYP2C19 located on human chromosome 10.
CYP2C8 were found to be most divergent. The maximum
homology is shared between CYP2C19 and CYP2C9
(90% homology), whereas, CYP2C8 share only 75%
homology identity (Kudzi et al., 2009).
CYP2C8 is more divergent among all CYP2C family
members as revealed from protein sequences. This gene
involves in the metabolism of amodiaquine and is mainly
expressed in human liver with expression level of less
than 1 (Nagata and Yamazoe, 2002). The human
CYP2C8 gene spans a gene length of 30 000 bp with 9
exons that code for 490 amino acid protein
(www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, Figure 4A).
CYP2C9 is also one of the major CYP2C that comprised
of one third of total hepatic P450 content. This gene plays
a pivotal role in dapsone and spans a gene length of
50734 bp (Chromosome 10q24, Position 96698415-
96749148) and contains 9 exons that codes for protein of
490 amino acid and mainly expressed in liver
(www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, Figure 4B).
CYP2C19 is the largest gene among human CYP450
involved in drug metabolism. The CYP2C19 gene plays a
significant role in the metabolism of proguanil and spans
a gene length of 90209 bp (Chromosome 10q24.1-q24.3,
position 96522463-96612671) and contains 9 exons that
codes for protein of 490 amino acid
(www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, Figure 4C), which is mainly
expressed in the liver (Nagata and Yamazoe, 2002).
Cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A):- The human CYP3A
family composed of 25% - 30% of total hepatic
cytochromes P450 (Shimada, 1994). The CYP3A gene
family is the most important drug metabolizing gene
which is involved in the metabolization of almost 60% of
drugs. The CYP3A family comprised of 4 functional
genes: CYP3A4, CYP3A5, CYP3A7 and CYP3A43
located within 218 Kb region of chromosome 7q22.1
(www.ncbi.nlm.nih). In addition to these four functional
genes, two psuedogenes CYP3A5P1 and CYP3A5P2 are
also present (Agarwal et al., 2008). CYP3A4 exhibit
approximately 85% amino acid sequence similarity with
CYP3A5 and CYP3A7 and approximately 75% amino
acid sequence similarity with CYP3A43 (Domanski et al.,
2000).
Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4):- CYP3A4 gene is
involved in metabolism of wide variety of antimalarial. It is
located at chromosome 7q21.3-q22.1 and spans a gene
length of 27592 bp with 13 exons (www.ncbi.nlm.nih,
Figure 5) that codes for protein of 502 amino acids which
is mainly expressed in the liver and intestine. In adults
CYP3A4 is the dominant CYP3A enzyme that plays a
dominant role in the metabolism of numerous drugs
(Hirota et al., 2004).
N-acetyltransferase (NAT):- The human N-
acetyltransferase is a broad spectrum drug metabolizing
enzyme that catalyzes N-acetylation and O-acetylation of
7. Antimalarial metabolization: what have we learnt so far?
World J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 007
Figure 5. Gene location, Exon, Intron of drug metabolizing gene CYP3A4 located on human chromosome 7.
Figure 6. Gene location, Exon, Intron of drug metabolizing gene NAT2 located on human chromosome 7.
arylamine carcinogens and heterocyclic amines present
in the exogenous chemicals including therapeutic drugs,
food and environmental pollutants. These enzymes are
located in the cytosolic liver, gut and many other tissues
of mammalian species (Dupret and Lima, 2005).
In humans, there are two functional N-acetyltransferase
(NAT) genes, NAT1 and NAT2 and one psuedogene
NATP. These functional NAT genes are located at
chromosome 8 and share 87% nucleotide and 81%
amino acid sequence identity (Windmill et al., 2000).
N-Acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2):- Human NAT2 gene
spans a gene length of 9.9 kb (Chromosome 8, positions
18,248,755 – 18,258,723) (NCBI Build 37.1 assembly,
Figure 6) and consists of a two exons, separated by a 9
kb intron. Only the second exon consists of single open
reading frame (ORF) of 873 bp that codes for 290 amino
acid and mainly expressed in liver (Fusseli et al., 2007).
The prospect of antimalarial usage lies in
pharmacogenomics
With the availability of human genome sequence, inter-
individual variation with respect to drug response has
become clear (Brockmoller and Tzevtkov, 2008) and
helped in understanding the fact that not all individual can
8. Antimalarial metabolization: what have we learnt so far?
Khan and Chand 008
equally respond to a particular drug which supports the
genetic basis of drug metabolism. In order to know the
genetic basis of gene involved in drug metabolism, the
inter-individual variation is very important. This difference
in response to drugs might be a consequence of variation
involved in drug metabolism, drug transporter or drug
receptor gene. Furthermore, these variations have
considerable effects on phenotypes, either as extensive
metabolizer (metabolism of drug is very fast and results
in low or no drug effects) or as poor metabolizer
(metabolism of drug is very slow and results in
accumulation of drug inside the body). However, it is
difficult to find, whether the whole gene family or only one
gene is involved in the inter-individual variation. Recently,
“Pharmacogenomics” emerged as a new field to study
variation in genome related to drug response. This field
helped not only in understanding the mechanism of drug
metabolism but also helped in understanding the
interaction of drugs with component of parasite (i.e
Plasmodium) and host. Additionally, Pharmacogenomics
holds the promise of personalized drug treatment, based
on underlying genetic variability of an individual (Wang
and Weinshilboum, 2008). Thus, it is very interesting to
understand that the success of any drug treatment
depends on the individual pharmacogenomic vulnerability
as well as the sensitivity of pathogen to drug. By
improving our deeper understanding and awareness of
genetic variability in drug metabolizing gene, parasite
biology and vector behavior, it is possible to reduce the
emergence and spread of drug resistance as well as
being helpful for the development of safe, cheap and
efficient drug.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Malaria remains a major worldwide public health threat as
a result of increased drug resistance. The effective action
of drug depends on two main aspects of drug metabolism
i.e. pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Individual
susceptibility for drug response are modulated by genetic
polymorphism in the drug metabolizing gene which can
lead to drug failure, emergence of resistance, increased
toxicities, decreased safety and adverse drug reactions.
Interestingly, majority of antimalarial are metabolized by
CYP3A4 drug metabolizing gene. Despite enormous
number of studies focusing on pharmacokinetic
interaction of antimalarials with drug metabolizing gene
(Daniyan et al., 2008; Khaliq et al., 2001), little
information is known regarding relationship between
antimalarial and drug metabolizing enzyme
polymorphism. Moreover, study related to genetic
polymorphisms, drug toxicity and environmental exposure
found to be a promising area of research in controlling
the pathogenesis and eradication of the disease.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to thanks the Indian Council of Medical
Research (ICMR) for Junior and Senior Research
Fellowships.
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