The document describes an experimental workshop protocol to investigate vaccine candidates for malaria. Participants will use ELISA techniques to analyze blood samples from individuals living in malaria-endemic areas and determine if they have developed an immune response to different candidate antigens. This will help identify the most effective vaccine candidates, as antigens that elicit antibodies in immune individuals are most likely to protect against future infection. The protocol involves binding antigens to wells, adding serum and labeled secondary antibodies to form complexes, then detecting the reaction with a colored substrate. Comparing results will reveal the antigen activating the strongest immune response, making it the best potential vaccine candidate.
This document discusses the history and types of vaccines. It notes that smallpox inoculation began in India over 2000 years ago, and that Edward Jenner is credited with developing the first vaccine for smallpox using cowpox in 1796. Vaccines work by stimulating adaptive immunity to diseases. There are several types of vaccines including whole-organism vaccines using attenuated or inactivated pathogens, purified macromolecule vaccines using polysaccharides, toxoids or recombinant antigens, and DNA vaccines where plasmid DNA encoding antigens is directly injected.
Live bacterial vaccines use live attenuated bacteria to induce immune responses against target pathogens. There are two types - those that combat the disease-causing organism directly, and those that assist in combating other organisms by inducing immune responses against heterologous antigens carried by the bacteria. Currently licensed live bacterial vaccines include typhoid, cholera, and tuberculosis vaccines. Virulence is attenuated through genetic modifications like gene deletions or making the bacteria auxotrophic. Recombinant bacterial vectors can also be used to deliver heterologous protein or DNA antigens from pathogens. Effective vectors exploit bacteria that invade mucosal tissues to stimulate mucosal and systemic immune responses.
Parasite Vaccines in Trials and in Usedranjansarma
Current Parasitic Vaccines: in Use and in Trial
There are several challenges to developing effective parasitic vaccines. Parasites have complex life cycles and evade the immune system, making the identification of protective antigens difficult. Few parasitic vaccines are currently licensed. The RTS,S vaccine for malaria is the leading candidate and aims to stimulate immunity against the liver stage of Plasmodium falciparum. Efforts are also being made to develop vaccines for other protozoan parasites like Leishmania as well as helminthic parasites such as hookworm and Schistosoma. Overcoming issues related to the protective immune response, antigen expression and variation, and appropriate animal models is key to advancing the development of new
The document discusses the history and development of vaccines. It covers key topics like how vaccines work, different types of vaccines including live attenuated and inactivated vaccines, challenges with certain viruses, and new methods being developed like recombinant DNA vaccines, viral vectors, and synthetic peptides. Major successes are highlighted for smallpox and polio vaccines.
Vaccines work by exposing the immune system to agents that resemble disease-causing pathogens, stimulating the body's immune response without causing illness. The document traces the history of vaccine development from Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine in 1796 to current types including whole-organism, purified components, recombinant, DNA, and multivalent subunit vaccines. The long and complex process of developing a new vaccine can take 10-15 years and involves identifying the pathogen, developing animal models, conducting safety and efficacy trials, and addressing challenges like antigenic variation.
Vaccines work by exposing the immune system to agents that resemble disease-causing pathogens, causing the body to develop immunity to them. There are several types of vaccines, including live attenuated vaccines containing weakened live pathogens, inactivated vaccines containing killed pathogens, toxoid vaccines containing inactivated toxins, and subunit vaccines containing fragments of pathogens. Vaccines are administered through various routes such as intramuscular, subcutaneous, oral, intranasal, and intradermal injection depending on the vaccine. Proper vaccine storage, administration technique, and timing are important for vaccine effectiveness.
- The document summarizes the history and development of vaccines from early variolation techniques to modern vaccines. It discusses the different types of vaccines including attenuated, inactivated, recombinant subunit, toxoid, and conjugate vaccines. It provides examples of each vaccine type and describes how vaccines work to produce immunity through initiating an immune response to antigens without causing disease. The summary concludes by emphasizing the importance of vaccination for protection against disease.
This document provides information on various vaccines including their composition, administration, and schedules. It discusses key details of vaccines for diseases like tuberculosis (BCG), polio, hepatitis B, diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus (DPT), influenza, rotavirus, pneumococcal pneumonia, measles, rubella, mumps, typhoid, varicella, human papillomavirus (HPV), and meningococcal infections. The goals, mechanisms of action, dosage, routes of administration, and protective effects of different vaccine types like live attenuated, killed, toxoid, subunit, and conjugate vaccines are outlined. National immunization schedules for infants, children, pregnant women, and adults are
This document discusses the history and types of vaccines. It notes that smallpox inoculation began in India over 2000 years ago, and that Edward Jenner is credited with developing the first vaccine for smallpox using cowpox in 1796. Vaccines work by stimulating adaptive immunity to diseases. There are several types of vaccines including whole-organism vaccines using attenuated or inactivated pathogens, purified macromolecule vaccines using polysaccharides, toxoids or recombinant antigens, and DNA vaccines where plasmid DNA encoding antigens is directly injected.
Live bacterial vaccines use live attenuated bacteria to induce immune responses against target pathogens. There are two types - those that combat the disease-causing organism directly, and those that assist in combating other organisms by inducing immune responses against heterologous antigens carried by the bacteria. Currently licensed live bacterial vaccines include typhoid, cholera, and tuberculosis vaccines. Virulence is attenuated through genetic modifications like gene deletions or making the bacteria auxotrophic. Recombinant bacterial vectors can also be used to deliver heterologous protein or DNA antigens from pathogens. Effective vectors exploit bacteria that invade mucosal tissues to stimulate mucosal and systemic immune responses.
Parasite Vaccines in Trials and in Usedranjansarma
Current Parasitic Vaccines: in Use and in Trial
There are several challenges to developing effective parasitic vaccines. Parasites have complex life cycles and evade the immune system, making the identification of protective antigens difficult. Few parasitic vaccines are currently licensed. The RTS,S vaccine for malaria is the leading candidate and aims to stimulate immunity against the liver stage of Plasmodium falciparum. Efforts are also being made to develop vaccines for other protozoan parasites like Leishmania as well as helminthic parasites such as hookworm and Schistosoma. Overcoming issues related to the protective immune response, antigen expression and variation, and appropriate animal models is key to advancing the development of new
The document discusses the history and development of vaccines. It covers key topics like how vaccines work, different types of vaccines including live attenuated and inactivated vaccines, challenges with certain viruses, and new methods being developed like recombinant DNA vaccines, viral vectors, and synthetic peptides. Major successes are highlighted for smallpox and polio vaccines.
Vaccines work by exposing the immune system to agents that resemble disease-causing pathogens, stimulating the body's immune response without causing illness. The document traces the history of vaccine development from Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine in 1796 to current types including whole-organism, purified components, recombinant, DNA, and multivalent subunit vaccines. The long and complex process of developing a new vaccine can take 10-15 years and involves identifying the pathogen, developing animal models, conducting safety and efficacy trials, and addressing challenges like antigenic variation.
Vaccines work by exposing the immune system to agents that resemble disease-causing pathogens, causing the body to develop immunity to them. There are several types of vaccines, including live attenuated vaccines containing weakened live pathogens, inactivated vaccines containing killed pathogens, toxoid vaccines containing inactivated toxins, and subunit vaccines containing fragments of pathogens. Vaccines are administered through various routes such as intramuscular, subcutaneous, oral, intranasal, and intradermal injection depending on the vaccine. Proper vaccine storage, administration technique, and timing are important for vaccine effectiveness.
- The document summarizes the history and development of vaccines from early variolation techniques to modern vaccines. It discusses the different types of vaccines including attenuated, inactivated, recombinant subunit, toxoid, and conjugate vaccines. It provides examples of each vaccine type and describes how vaccines work to produce immunity through initiating an immune response to antigens without causing disease. The summary concludes by emphasizing the importance of vaccination for protection against disease.
This document provides information on various vaccines including their composition, administration, and schedules. It discusses key details of vaccines for diseases like tuberculosis (BCG), polio, hepatitis B, diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus (DPT), influenza, rotavirus, pneumococcal pneumonia, measles, rubella, mumps, typhoid, varicella, human papillomavirus (HPV), and meningococcal infections. The goals, mechanisms of action, dosage, routes of administration, and protective effects of different vaccine types like live attenuated, killed, toxoid, subunit, and conjugate vaccines are outlined. National immunization schedules for infants, children, pregnant women, and adults are
Vaccination involves stimulating immunity in the human body against specific diseases using modified or killed microorganisms. There are three main types of vaccines: killed vaccines using normal infections; attenuated vaccines using live but weakened virus particles; and subunit vaccines using purified virus components. Vaccination reduces susceptibility to infection, can slow or stop the spread of disease, and helps protect not only those vaccinated but also the wider community. However, some viruses mutate rapidly requiring new vaccines, vaccination involves costs and trained professionals, and both mild and severe side effects can occasionally occur.
This document discusses newer vaccines and an MR vaccination campaign. It provides background on vaccine history and types. Recent developments include vaccines for pneumococcal, influenza, meningococcal, HPV, and rotavirus. Future vaccines discussed include ones for HIV. The document also outlines the need for vaccination, recently added vaccines in India's national program, and details of vaccination schedules and target groups for campaigns like one for MR in 2017.
This document presents information about vaccines. It begins with a brief introduction defining a vaccine as a biological preparation that provides immunity against a disease. The history section then discusses how Edward Jenner developed the smallpox vaccine in 1796 and how Louis Pasteur later developed vaccines for chicken cholera and anthrax in the 1880s. The document goes on to describe the main types of vaccines as live attenuated, killed/inactivated, toxoid, subunit, conjugate, DNA, and recombinant vector vaccines. It also provides examples of diseases each vaccine type is used for and discusses their advantages and disadvantages.
Vaccines provide immunity to diseases by exposing the immune system to agents that resemble disease-causing pathogens. The first vaccine was developed by Edward Jenner in 1796 to prevent smallpox. Since then, vaccines have been created to protect against many additional diseases. Newer vaccines continue to be developed using technologies like recombinant DNA. Vaccines are necessary public health tools that help prevent disease outbreaks in a cost-effective manner.
This document discusses vaccines and immunization. It defines active and passive immunization and describes the properties of ideal vaccines. The history of vaccine development is reviewed, including Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine in 1796 and Louis Pasteur's rabies vaccine in 1885. The golden age of vaccine technology from 1950-1970 which produced vaccines for polio, measles, mumps and rubella is noted. The document outlines different types of vaccines including killed, live attenuated, toxoids, subunit and recombinant vaccines. It provides examples of each type and their characteristics. Combined immunization against diseases like diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, measles, mumps and rubella is recommended.
Vaccination: how vaccination helps to prevent diseasesLekhan Lodhi
The document discusses vaccination and immunization. It defines vaccination as stimulating protective immune responses through exposure to non-pathogenic forms of microbes. A vaccine produces specific protection against a disease by being antigenic but not pathogenic. Immunization makes a person immune or resistant to an infectious disease typically through vaccine administration. The first empirical proof of protective immunity was provided by Edward Jenner through vaccinating against smallpox using cowpox. Smallpox was possible to eradicate due to unique biological factors and the effectiveness of the smallpox vaccine. The document also discusses vaccine design, mechanisms of protection, types of vaccines including live, inactivated, toxoids, cellular fraction and recombinant vaccines, and routes and schemes of immun
The document discusses various types of medical immunobiological preparations (MIBP) used for active and passive immunity. It describes different types of vaccines including live attenuated, killed/inactivated, subunit/split, molecular, and modern recombinant vaccines. Live vaccines induce prolonged immunity but have greater safety risks, while killed/inactivated vaccines are safer but require adjuvants and booster doses. Newer approaches to vaccines include recombinant vectors, synthetic peptides, DNA vaccines, and edible vaccines produced in transgenic plants. MIBP also include immune antisera, immunoglobulins, hyperimmune plasma, and immunomodifiers to help induce immunity.
The document summarizes future generation vaccines and their development. It discusses the need for vaccines against HIV, tuberculosis, malaria, dengue, and meningococcal diseases. For each disease, it outlines the disease burden, current vaccine development efforts including clinical trials, and the roles of organizations like WHO and PATH in accelerating vaccine development. The largest and most advanced vaccine clinical trials mentioned are for RTS,S malaria vaccine and Dengvaxia dengue vaccine.
This document discusses protection against viral infections through vaccines and antiviral drugs. It begins by defining key terms like vaccines, vaccinations, and immunizations. It then discusses the history of vaccines, why they are important, and how they work to trigger an immune response. The rest of the document details different types of vaccines, common virus vaccines, vaccines still under research, recommended vaccination schedules by age, potential side effects, and types of antiviral drugs that work at different stages of the viral lifecycle.
Prevention is better than any cure. Smallpox has been eradicated. Polio is largely controlled. Hepatitis A&B now largely preventable. Measles and rubella are targeted for elimination.
What is a vaccine? How are they developed and implemented? What is the public health effectiveness? What vaccines are in use? Learn the answers to these questions and so much more in this free report: Vaccine Fact Book 2013.
The document discusses the history and future of vaccines. It begins by explaining how vaccines work by tricking the immune system to produce antibodies to fight a harmless form of the virus. Next, it discusses how while hypodermic injection is most common, scientists are searching for alternative delivery methods. The document then discusses how Edward Jenner conducted the first vaccination against smallpox in the late 1700s and how Louis Pasteur developed the first vaccine against rabies in 1885. Finally, it notes that as more vaccines were developed, large groups like soldiers began being vaccinated against diseases during World Wars I and II.
The document discusses different types of vaccines, including:
- Live attenuated vaccines which use weakened live pathogens that cause immunity but not disease. Examples include measles, rubella, and yellow fever vaccines.
- Toxoid vaccines which use inactivated bacterial toxins to provide immunity against diseases caused by toxins like tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis.
- Subunit vaccines containing purified antigen components rather than whole organisms, like hepatitis B and papilloma virus vaccines.
- Conjugated vaccines join bacterial capsular polysaccharides to proteins to enhance immune response against infections like Hib and pneumococcal.
- Recombinant vaccines produced through genetic engineering techniques
This document is a presentation on vaccines that was created by Sana Shaikh for a class. It includes an index listing the topics covered which are an introduction to vaccines, the history of vaccines including the work of Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur, the production process for vaccines, and applications of specific vaccines for measles, polio, typhoid, hepatitis B, tetanus, and current research on vaccine adherence. The presentation provides overviews of the different vaccines discussed, including dosing schedules, and ends with a list of references.
The document provides an overview of the history and development of vaccines. It discusses key events like Jenner's development of the smallpox vaccine in 1796 and the eradication of smallpox. It describes different types of vaccines including live-attenuated, inactivated, toxoid, subunit, conjugate, and DNA vaccines. The mechanisms of how vaccines work and produce immunity are also explained. The document traces the evolution of vaccines from whole organism approaches to modern techniques like recombinant DNA technology.
Overview of vaccine and vaccination, types of vaccines with examples, vaccine production technique, adverse effects of vaccination, precautions
Email: jeevan@smail.nchu.edu.tw
Immunization involves deliberately inducing an adaptive immune response through vaccination. Vaccination uses killed or attenuated pathogens to provoke immunity without causing disease. The goals of vaccination are eradication and prevention of disease through complete or partial lifelong protection. Protection can be achieved through active immunization by administering live attenuated or inactivated pathogens/toxins/antigens, or through passive immunization by administering preformed antibodies. Effective immunization programs require assessing community needs, setting goals and strategies, estimating resources, and monitoring outcomes through delivery of vaccines at fixed sites, outreach, and mobile services.
A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease.Vaccine contains certain agents that not only resembles a disease-causing microorganism but it also stimulates body’s immune system recognize the foreign agents.Vaccines can be prophylactic or therapeutic.
The administration of vaccines is called vaccination.
British physician Edward Jenner, who in 1796 used the cowpox virus (Latin variola vaccinia) to confer protection against smallpox. In 1885 the French microbiologist Louis Pasteur and Emile Roux developed the first vaccine against rabies.
There are several types of vaccines like Whole-Organism vaccine, recombinant vaccine,dna vaccine, multivalent subunit vaccines etc.
- Bucharest is the sixth largest capital city in the European Union in size and was designated the capital of Romania in 1659.
- The first roads in Bucharest were paved with tree trunks and later river stones, and it was one of the first cities in Europe to have horse-drawn omnibuses in 1840.
- In the early 20th century, Bucharest was considered one of the most beautiful and modern cities in Europe, comparable to Paris, earning it the nickname "Little Paris."
Vaccination involves stimulating immunity in the human body against specific diseases using modified or killed microorganisms. There are three main types of vaccines: killed vaccines using normal infections; attenuated vaccines using live but weakened virus particles; and subunit vaccines using purified virus components. Vaccination reduces susceptibility to infection, can slow or stop the spread of disease, and helps protect not only those vaccinated but also the wider community. However, some viruses mutate rapidly requiring new vaccines, vaccination involves costs and trained professionals, and both mild and severe side effects can occasionally occur.
This document discusses newer vaccines and an MR vaccination campaign. It provides background on vaccine history and types. Recent developments include vaccines for pneumococcal, influenza, meningococcal, HPV, and rotavirus. Future vaccines discussed include ones for HIV. The document also outlines the need for vaccination, recently added vaccines in India's national program, and details of vaccination schedules and target groups for campaigns like one for MR in 2017.
This document presents information about vaccines. It begins with a brief introduction defining a vaccine as a biological preparation that provides immunity against a disease. The history section then discusses how Edward Jenner developed the smallpox vaccine in 1796 and how Louis Pasteur later developed vaccines for chicken cholera and anthrax in the 1880s. The document goes on to describe the main types of vaccines as live attenuated, killed/inactivated, toxoid, subunit, conjugate, DNA, and recombinant vector vaccines. It also provides examples of diseases each vaccine type is used for and discusses their advantages and disadvantages.
Vaccines provide immunity to diseases by exposing the immune system to agents that resemble disease-causing pathogens. The first vaccine was developed by Edward Jenner in 1796 to prevent smallpox. Since then, vaccines have been created to protect against many additional diseases. Newer vaccines continue to be developed using technologies like recombinant DNA. Vaccines are necessary public health tools that help prevent disease outbreaks in a cost-effective manner.
This document discusses vaccines and immunization. It defines active and passive immunization and describes the properties of ideal vaccines. The history of vaccine development is reviewed, including Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine in 1796 and Louis Pasteur's rabies vaccine in 1885. The golden age of vaccine technology from 1950-1970 which produced vaccines for polio, measles, mumps and rubella is noted. The document outlines different types of vaccines including killed, live attenuated, toxoids, subunit and recombinant vaccines. It provides examples of each type and their characteristics. Combined immunization against diseases like diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, measles, mumps and rubella is recommended.
Vaccination: how vaccination helps to prevent diseasesLekhan Lodhi
The document discusses vaccination and immunization. It defines vaccination as stimulating protective immune responses through exposure to non-pathogenic forms of microbes. A vaccine produces specific protection against a disease by being antigenic but not pathogenic. Immunization makes a person immune or resistant to an infectious disease typically through vaccine administration. The first empirical proof of protective immunity was provided by Edward Jenner through vaccinating against smallpox using cowpox. Smallpox was possible to eradicate due to unique biological factors and the effectiveness of the smallpox vaccine. The document also discusses vaccine design, mechanisms of protection, types of vaccines including live, inactivated, toxoids, cellular fraction and recombinant vaccines, and routes and schemes of immun
The document discusses various types of medical immunobiological preparations (MIBP) used for active and passive immunity. It describes different types of vaccines including live attenuated, killed/inactivated, subunit/split, molecular, and modern recombinant vaccines. Live vaccines induce prolonged immunity but have greater safety risks, while killed/inactivated vaccines are safer but require adjuvants and booster doses. Newer approaches to vaccines include recombinant vectors, synthetic peptides, DNA vaccines, and edible vaccines produced in transgenic plants. MIBP also include immune antisera, immunoglobulins, hyperimmune plasma, and immunomodifiers to help induce immunity.
The document summarizes future generation vaccines and their development. It discusses the need for vaccines against HIV, tuberculosis, malaria, dengue, and meningococcal diseases. For each disease, it outlines the disease burden, current vaccine development efforts including clinical trials, and the roles of organizations like WHO and PATH in accelerating vaccine development. The largest and most advanced vaccine clinical trials mentioned are for RTS,S malaria vaccine and Dengvaxia dengue vaccine.
This document discusses protection against viral infections through vaccines and antiviral drugs. It begins by defining key terms like vaccines, vaccinations, and immunizations. It then discusses the history of vaccines, why they are important, and how they work to trigger an immune response. The rest of the document details different types of vaccines, common virus vaccines, vaccines still under research, recommended vaccination schedules by age, potential side effects, and types of antiviral drugs that work at different stages of the viral lifecycle.
Prevention is better than any cure. Smallpox has been eradicated. Polio is largely controlled. Hepatitis A&B now largely preventable. Measles and rubella are targeted for elimination.
What is a vaccine? How are they developed and implemented? What is the public health effectiveness? What vaccines are in use? Learn the answers to these questions and so much more in this free report: Vaccine Fact Book 2013.
The document discusses the history and future of vaccines. It begins by explaining how vaccines work by tricking the immune system to produce antibodies to fight a harmless form of the virus. Next, it discusses how while hypodermic injection is most common, scientists are searching for alternative delivery methods. The document then discusses how Edward Jenner conducted the first vaccination against smallpox in the late 1700s and how Louis Pasteur developed the first vaccine against rabies in 1885. Finally, it notes that as more vaccines were developed, large groups like soldiers began being vaccinated against diseases during World Wars I and II.
The document discusses different types of vaccines, including:
- Live attenuated vaccines which use weakened live pathogens that cause immunity but not disease. Examples include measles, rubella, and yellow fever vaccines.
- Toxoid vaccines which use inactivated bacterial toxins to provide immunity against diseases caused by toxins like tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis.
- Subunit vaccines containing purified antigen components rather than whole organisms, like hepatitis B and papilloma virus vaccines.
- Conjugated vaccines join bacterial capsular polysaccharides to proteins to enhance immune response against infections like Hib and pneumococcal.
- Recombinant vaccines produced through genetic engineering techniques
This document is a presentation on vaccines that was created by Sana Shaikh for a class. It includes an index listing the topics covered which are an introduction to vaccines, the history of vaccines including the work of Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur, the production process for vaccines, and applications of specific vaccines for measles, polio, typhoid, hepatitis B, tetanus, and current research on vaccine adherence. The presentation provides overviews of the different vaccines discussed, including dosing schedules, and ends with a list of references.
The document provides an overview of the history and development of vaccines. It discusses key events like Jenner's development of the smallpox vaccine in 1796 and the eradication of smallpox. It describes different types of vaccines including live-attenuated, inactivated, toxoid, subunit, conjugate, and DNA vaccines. The mechanisms of how vaccines work and produce immunity are also explained. The document traces the evolution of vaccines from whole organism approaches to modern techniques like recombinant DNA technology.
Overview of vaccine and vaccination, types of vaccines with examples, vaccine production technique, adverse effects of vaccination, precautions
Email: jeevan@smail.nchu.edu.tw
Immunization involves deliberately inducing an adaptive immune response through vaccination. Vaccination uses killed or attenuated pathogens to provoke immunity without causing disease. The goals of vaccination are eradication and prevention of disease through complete or partial lifelong protection. Protection can be achieved through active immunization by administering live attenuated or inactivated pathogens/toxins/antigens, or through passive immunization by administering preformed antibodies. Effective immunization programs require assessing community needs, setting goals and strategies, estimating resources, and monitoring outcomes through delivery of vaccines at fixed sites, outreach, and mobile services.
A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease.Vaccine contains certain agents that not only resembles a disease-causing microorganism but it also stimulates body’s immune system recognize the foreign agents.Vaccines can be prophylactic or therapeutic.
The administration of vaccines is called vaccination.
British physician Edward Jenner, who in 1796 used the cowpox virus (Latin variola vaccinia) to confer protection against smallpox. In 1885 the French microbiologist Louis Pasteur and Emile Roux developed the first vaccine against rabies.
There are several types of vaccines like Whole-Organism vaccine, recombinant vaccine,dna vaccine, multivalent subunit vaccines etc.
- Bucharest is the sixth largest capital city in the European Union in size and was designated the capital of Romania in 1659.
- The first roads in Bucharest were paved with tree trunks and later river stones, and it was one of the first cities in Europe to have horse-drawn omnibuses in 1840.
- In the early 20th century, Bucharest was considered one of the most beautiful and modern cities in Europe, comparable to Paris, earning it the nickname "Little Paris."
Dokumen tersebut memberikan nasihat tentang desain slide presentasi yang berkualitas dengan mengutamakan rasio signal terhadap noise, efek prioritas gambar, menyisakan ruang kosong, menjaga kontras, kedekatan dan kesejajaran elemen, serta penggunaan repetisi. Prinsip-prinsip ini didasarkan pada optimalisasi fungsi penglihatan dan pendengaran penonton sesuai teori multimedia.
The document provides details for an assignment on pre-production for a short film. Students must plan the production of their short film, exploring sound recording in different environments. They need to research crew roles and equipment, create a budget, develop scripts and storyboards, and record dialogue in various locations. Recordings must then be edited with effects and into a sequenced piece demonstrating editing skills. The goal is to enhance organizational and sound manipulation skills through practical pre-production tasks for a short film.
International Seminar: The role of South-South Cooperation in Agricultural Development in Africa - opportunities and challenges. 17 May 2012.
More info: http://www.future-agricultures.org/events/south-south-cooperation
The document summarizes research findings from a study on identity and access management (IAM) solutions. The research found that organizations are shifting from a point solution approach to IAM, where individual products are integrated by the enterprise, to a platform approach where integration is handled by the vendor. The platform approach was found to provide benefits such as faster provisioning, lower risk from orphaned accounts, quicker integration of new applications and users, fewer security incidents, and lower total costs.
Este documento proporciona instrucciones sobre cómo usar la aplicación SOL para grabar tutoriales. Explica que cuando se abre la aplicación se instala según la configuración. Describe que el botón de cruz más "capture" se usa para delimitar el área de la pantalla a grabar y que el botón de "fotos" guarda un historial de archivos. Indica que al seleccionar un área, aparecen opciones para sacar foto, filmar, volver o cancelar, junto con las medidas de la captura seleccionada.
Voto de Gilmar Mendes - 2005 (arquivo completo - todos os votos)Miguel Rosario
O documento apresenta os votos de vários ministros do Supremo Tribunal Federal sobre uma Ação Direta de Inconstitucionalidade. Os ministros discutem a legalidade de uma lei e apresentam seus argumentos sobre se ela deve ou não ser considerada inconstitucional.
Análise do impacto da futura PEC de limitação de gastos da UniãoMiguel Rosario
Este documento analisa o impacto potencial da futura PEC de limitação de gastos da União nos orçamentos de educação, saúde, previdência, assistência social, cultura e infraestrutura. Apresenta as despesas realizadas nestas áreas entre 2003-2015 e projeta os valores até 2018, comparando com os limites impostos pela inflação anual. Conclui que a regra poderia limitar o crescimento das despesas nestas áreas em alguns anos.
Este documento contiene 53 páginas de boletines NOTAM (Notice to Airmen) para el aeropuerto de Porto Alegre/Salgado Filho (SBPA) en Brasil. Los NOTAM anuncian cambios temporales o permanentes relacionados con procedimientos, equipos y áreas peligrosas en y alrededor del aeropuerto.
The document provides contact information for Shajal Kakkodi who prepared it. Shajal Kakkodi attends M.I.L.P School in Kakkodi, Kozhikode and can be reached by email or phone for feedback on the document.
Lets Play Corporation sells a variety of sports equipment and household items. The store aims to be unique by offering both types of products together in one location. Customers are welcome to exercise using the sports equipment and cook afterwards using any household items purchased from the store. The store encourages customers to invite friends and family to play and exercise using the sports equipment for a fun social activity.
Paisley Engaging young professionals in the agri food sector - strategies, le...futureagricultures
This document discusses YPARD, a global platform for young professionals under 40 working in agricultural research and development. It aims to increase youth participation in agriculture by facilitating knowledge sharing, career opportunities, and representation of youth perspectives. YPARD has over 1,950 members from 117 countries and provides networking, mentoring, and opportunities to engage with stakeholders. The organization addresses concerns around declining interest in agriculture and an aging workforce by promoting the sector to youth and enabling their contributions.
Este documento describe un proyecto para mejorar el campo multideportivo en la localidad de San Nicolás de Piyay en el distrito de Pataypampa, provincia de Grau, Apurímac. Actualmente la comunidad carece de una losa adecuada para la práctica deportiva. El proyecto propone construir una losa deportiva para fomentar el deporte y mejorar la calidad de vida de los residentes.
Greg Smith, a 12-year veteran of Goldman Sachs, resigned from the firm in an op-ed published in the New York Times. He argued that the culture at Goldman Sachs had become toxic and was no longer focused on serving clients. Smith said the interests of clients had been sidelined in favor of making money at any cost. He also stated that leadership had lost hold of the firm's culture of teamwork, integrity and doing right by clients. Smith hoped his resignation would be a wake-up call to the board to refocus on clients and weed out morally bankrupt people only interested in profits.
MOBILIDADE URBANA- "BRT": QUALIFICAÇÃO DO SISTEMA OPERACIONALPLANORS
Este documento introduz o Padrão de Qualidade de BRT, um esforço para definir as melhores práticas reconhecidas internacionalmente em sistemas BRT. O documento explica o sistema de pontuação usado para classificar sistemas BRT como Ouro, Prata ou Bronze com base em características associadas a um alto desempenho e qualidade do serviço. Também descreve a composição do Comitê do Padrão de Qualidade de BRT responsável por desenvolver e aplicar o padrão.
Dokumen ini membahas latar belakang mengenai keamanan otentikasi pada situs web. Saat ini, otentikasi menggunakan kombinasi huruf dan angka masih banyak digunakan meskipun rentan terhadap serangan keylogger dan sniffer. Penelitian ini akan merancang modul otentikasi yang mampu mencegah pemanfaatan data akun dari serangan tersebut untuk melindungi informasi penting.
This document provides information about malaria vaccines. It discusses the context of malaria globally and the need for a vaccine. Several potential vaccine candidates target different stages of the malaria parasite's lifecycle, including sporozoites, infected hepatocytes, and erythrocytic stages. Developing an effective vaccine is challenging due to the parasite's diversity and complexity. The most promising current candidate is RTS,S, which provides some protection against malaria in clinical trials but is not fully effective.
The document discusses the emergence of antimicrobial resistance due to the introduction and use of antimicrobials in humans and animals. It states that while antimicrobial resistance genes have existed naturally for thousands of years, the widespread use of antimicrobials has applied strong selective pressure that has led to growing antimicrobial resistance among human and animal pathogens. It also describes some of the associations seen between antimicrobial use and the emergence of resistance in various settings and bacterial species.
This document discusses human parasite vaccines. It begins by explaining what vaccines do in stimulating the host's protective immune response. Developing effective parasite vaccines faces challenges including not fully understanding the parasite's life cycle and which stages elicit a protective immune response. Effective vaccines must produce long-lasting protection without boosting and be low-cost, stable, and safe. Progress has been limited for parasite vaccines due to parasites' ability to evade the immune system, uncertainty regarding which antigens stimulate protection, and differences between animal models and human immune responses. Major human parasitic diseases discussed include malaria, African sleeping sickness, Chagas disease, leishmaniasis, intestinal protozoa, schistosomiasis, onchocerciasis
The research aims to design and develop novel bacteriocin peptides as an alternative therapeutic approach to treat malaria by overcoming drug resistance. The objectives are to screen bacteriocin libraries for toxicity and anti-Plasmodium activity, select bacteriocins that inhibit the asexual blood stage of P. falciparum, and optimize bacteriocins' anti-parasite activity by analyzing structures and motifs. This strategy seeks to discover novel bacteriocin domains that can increase antimalarial effectiveness. The research would help provide safe and affordable treatment options to reduce the global malaria burden and economic costs, especially in developing regions facing emerging drug resistance.
Antimalarial metabolization: what have we learnt so far?Premier Publishers
Considering malaria is a highly devastating disease of mankind, total eradication of malaria seems to be an uphill task, the only relief from this disease is achieved by usage of antimalarial drugs. Since malaria is associated with humans from time immemorial, usage of traditional substances to most presently effective antimalarial have been recorded to cure this disease. With the advent of modern biological techniques aided the understanding of the biochemical pathways of antimalarial metabolism thereby helping in designing successful usage of many antimalarials. Nevertheless, improper usages of certain drugs have led to the origin and spread of drug resistant malaria parasites (chloroquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum). Also, the genetic basis of antimalarial metabolism in humans is now well understood and frequent mutations in genes of malarial parasites are well associated with drug resistance. The entire scenario of antimalarial usage in the field have become complicated, partly due to poor understanding between antimalarial metabolism in humans and drug fighting mechanism in parasites, by which resistance to even combined therapy (e.g. Artemisinin Combination Therapy) have started emerging. Vital basic understanding from human and parasite population genetics (involving antimalarial both metabolizing genes in human and resistant genes in parasite) could be an ideal starting point to malaria control.
America's biopharmaceutical research companies are developing 394 medicines and vaccines to combat infectious diseases. These include 226 medicines for viral infections like hepatitis, HPV, and herpes; 124 for bacterial infections such as pneumonia and tuberculosis; and medicines for fungal and parasitic infections. Many of these potential treatments target diseases where resistance to current treatments is growing, such as multi-drug resistant bacterial infections. The document outlines some examples of promising new treatments and vaccines in development for diseases like hepatitis C, HIV, malaria, and drug-resistant bacterial infections.
KCR features in the newest Pharma Voice, June 2017, top industry publication. Andrzej Piotrowski, MD, Ph.D., Medical Monitor at KCR, commented on malaria treatment and research.
This study evaluated the direct and indirect protective effects of malaria interventions ITNs and IRS using data from 7 countries in Africa. A crude analysis found that ITN use significantly decreased odds of malaria in 2 countries and increased odds in 2 others, while IRS use significantly decreased odds in 1 country and increased odds in another. An adjusted analysis found no indirect protection for non-ITN users as coverage increased, but indirect protection was offered to ITN users as coverage increased in their neighborhood. IRS use did not provide individual or community-level protection against malaria. The contradictory findings highlight a need for further research on mechanisms driving these observed patterns.
Combating Drug Resistance in The Intensive Care Unit (ICU)Apollo Hospitals
Drug resistance of microbes has become a major challenge in treating ICU patients successfully. There are many factors that contribute to the development of drug resistance, including irrational antibiotic use, lack of antibiotic stewardship programs, and poor infection control practices. Implementing strict antibiotic policies, having responsive microbiology departments, and educating healthcare providers on following clinical guidelines are important first steps to prevent drug resistance. It is also essential to monitor antibiotic use, tailor therapies based on culture results, and withdraw antibiotics appropriately once infections have resolved. A multifaceted approach involving hospitals, healthcare workers, and communities is needed to curb the growing issue of antimicrobial resistance.
Martin Chang, MBBE final report, 2012_08_21Martin Chang
This document summarizes key information about developing an effective blood-stage malaria vaccine, including:
1) Existing vaccines like RTS,S have shown only partial effectiveness, so more effective vaccines are still needed.
2) The malaria parasite has different life stages, and vaccines target different stages. This report focuses on blood-stage vaccines.
3) Effective immune mechanisms against blood-stage parasites include antibody-dependent cellular inhibition (ADCI) and antibody-dependent respiratory burst (ADRB), but these have not been fully induced by existing vaccines.
An Epidemiological Model of Malaria Transmission in Ghana.pdfEmily Smith
- The document presents an epidemiological model of malaria transmission in Ghana using a system of ordinary differential equations with human and mosquito populations.
- The model divides the human population into susceptible, exposed, infectious, and recovered categories and the mosquito population into susceptible, exposed, and infectious categories.
- Sensitivity analysis found that the mosquito biting rate and mosquito death rate were the most sensitive parameters affecting the basic reproduction number. Simulations showed that combining four control measures - insecticide spraying, bed net usage, and treatment of infected humans and pregnant women - had the highest impact on reducing disease transmission.
1) Vaccines are biological preparations that help improve immunity against specific diseases. They contain weakened or killed forms of pathogens that stimulate immune system memory without causing illness.
2) Edward Jenner developed the first vaccine in 1796 using cowpox to provide immunity to smallpox. There are several types of vaccines including live attenuated, inactivated, subunit, toxoid, and recombinant vector vaccines.
3) Vaccines work by exposing the immune system to antigens from pathogens. This triggers production of antibodies and memory cells that can fight the pathogen if exposed in the future, providing immunity. While vaccines have many benefits like disease prevention and eradication, some risks also exist.
The document discusses World Malaria Day and the theme of harnessing innovation to reduce the malaria disease burden. It provides definitions and descriptions of malaria, including that it is caused by Plasmodium parasites and transmitted via infected Anopheles mosquitoes. It discusses the history of malaria, magnitude of the problem globally and in India, epidemiological determinants like parasite species, life cycle, host and environmental factors. It also summarizes diagnosis, treatment approaches, and the role of nurses in prevention and control of malaria through activities like health education, testing, and treatment adherence support.
This presentation is about the relevance of vaccine as a public health tool against vaccine preventable diseases and the need to accelerate the development of vaccines against malaria and other diseases of global health importance in developing countries such as Nigeria.
The document discusses a directed student learning session on vaccines and immunity. The objectives are to understand immunity, vaccination, and the Malaysian immunization schedule. Students are advised to visit several websites to learn about herd immunity, different vaccine types, and the cold chain system for maintaining vaccine integrity.
This document discusses malaria diagnosis, measurement, control, and prevention. It describes microscopic examination of blood films to detect malaria parasites, as well as serological and rapid diagnostic tests. Key metrics for measuring malaria like API, ABER, and SPR are defined. Approaches to control include case management, vector control through indoor residual spraying and larval source reduction, and use of insecticide-treated bed nets. The history of national malaria programs in India including NMCP, NMEP, UMS, and current RBM partnership are summarized.
The document discusses treatment guidelines for malaria in Assam, India put forth by the Malaria Prevention Foundation. It outlines diagnosing malaria via microscopy or rapid diagnostic tests. For uncomplicated malaria, artemisinin-based combination therapy is recommended. For severe falciparum malaria, parenteral antimalarial treatment like artesunate or artemether is recommended along with an antibiotic. It also discusses treating uncomplicated vivax malaria with chloroquine and adding primaquine for radical cure to prevent relapses.
This document summarizes malaria diagnosis, measurement, control, and prevention strategies. It discusses microscopic examination of blood films, serological tests, and rapid diagnostic tests for diagnosis. Key metrics for measuring malaria like API, ABER, and SPR are defined. Control approaches include case management, vector control through indoor residual spraying and larval source reduction, and personal protection measures like bednets and repellents. The history of India's National Malaria Program and its transition to the eradication focused National Malaria Eradication Program are also outlined.
Towards a malaria-free world - Background informationXplore Health
This guide provides background information on malaria, the most important parasitic disease in the world. Explore all aspects of malaria from the causes to treatment. Investigate the latest research and uncover the ethical, legal and social issues surrounding this disease.
This document presents a mathematical model for dengue transmission that incorporates the release of Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes and human vaccination. The model divides the mosquito and human populations into compartments and uses differential equations to describe changes in each compartment over time. Stability analysis shows that the basic reproduction number determines the stability of disease-free and endemic equilibria. Sensitivity analysis finds that transmission probabilities from mosquitoes to humans are positively correlated with and sensitive to the basic reproduction number. An optimal control problem is formulated and analyzed numerically to determine the most cost-effective integrated strategy among vaccination, mosquito nets, improved treatment, and insecticide spraying.
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El documento habla sobre la situación económica de Galicia y España. La crisis ha afectado negativamente a la economía gallega con una tasa de paro del 20% y una deuda pública alta. A pesar de los desafíos, existen oportunidades para mejorar la economía a través de inversiones en energías renovables, turismo y pymes innovadoras.
Toward a malaria-free world - Tools' informationXplore Health
This document provides information on 8 tools available on the Xplore Health portal for teaching about malaria, including: 1) a video game about stopping malaria, 2) a video about working for a malaria-free world, 3) a video called "A Shelter from Malaria" about developing an anti-malaria vaccination, 4) a video about facing an underestimated malaria, 5) an experiment on investigating a malaria vaccine, 6) experiment protocols, 7) a video called "Malaria: Ethical Issues", and 8) a game called "Malaria: Ethical Issues". Each tool is described with objectives, key messages, and suggestions for use in the classroom.
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How are drugs developed? - Lesson plansXplore Health
In this guide you will have suggestions of lesson plans that have been designed by the Education National Coordinators using the Xplore Health materials.
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Protocol for youngsters to carry out a bacterial transformation in a lab. The protocol follows a line of biomedical research which focuses on the study of a potential therapeutic target that could be recognised by a drug against atherosclerosis. The experiment protocol is an opportunity for science centres, museums and schools to replicate a real experiment done in a real lab doing research on drug discovery.
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Juega con Xplore Halth y gana 2 entradas a CosmoCaixaXplore Health
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How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
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Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
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Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
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Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
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2. Introduction
Malaria is considered to be the most impor- of different measures that include the use of
tant parasite-caused disease in the world, and mosquito nets impregnated with insecticide,
is responsible for the death of approximately spray insecticides, preventive treatments, the
800,000 people every year, particularly children implementation of educational programmes
under 5 and pregnant women. According to the and environmental intervention, among others.
World Health Organization (WHO), some three
billion persons are at risk of contracting the The scientific community is working hard to de-
infection, while in the year 2010 there were velop a vaccine which, in combination with the
225 million cases of malaria in the world, of current measures, could contribute significantly
which 90% were in Africa. to a better control of malaria. There is already a
vaccine in the clinical study phase, which would
Currently, malaria is endemic in more than be effective in 50% of cases.
100 countries located in sub-Saharan Africa and
regions of South Asia, Latin America and Oceania.
The most recent reports indicate that half the
world's population lives in areas where there is
a risk of contracting the disease, and where in
addition to its consequences for the health of the
population, malaria contributes to further weak-
ening the area’s economic situation.
In this workshop you will do research
To eradicate this disease in areas with a high with different vaccine candidates to
risk of transmission, various interventions are decide which is the most effective.
being conducted that require a combination
Countries or areas where the transmission of malaria occurs. Countries or areas with limited risk of transmission of malaria
Source: World Health Organization (WHO): 2009 data
2
3. How is malaria transmitted? Why is a vaccine against malaria
necessary?
Malaria is an infectious disease which is caught
from the bite of the Anopheles mosquito, which
transmits Plasmodium parasites, thereby act- Historically, vaccines have been one of the most
ing as a vector. In the human body, the parasites efficient measures for the prevention of dis-
multiply in the liver and then infect the red eases and saving lives, especially in the case of
blood cells. Prominent symptoms of malaria are infectious diseases. Obtaining a vaccine that is
fever, headache and vomiting, and they appear partially effective could save hundreds of thou-
from 10 to 15 days after the mosquito bite. sands of lives.
Obtaining a vaccine would be a great step for-
ward that could be added to the current arsenal
of measures used for the prevention of malaria,
such as insecticide-impregnated mosquito nets
and the prompt and appropriate treatment of
persons diagnosed with malaria.
What is being done to Since its short-term effectiveness would be
control malaria? partial, it would be a substitute for these
Basic interventions to control malaria are di- measures, but rather complement them. The
vided into several groups: two together would represent a comprehensive
response to the prevention of malaria.
1 Strategies directed against
the mosquito, or vector,
such as spraying enclosed
spaces with insecticides.
2 Strategies to avoid contact
between the vector and
host, such as the use of
mosquito nets impregnated
with insecticide.
3 Strategies directed
against the parasite.
One of these strategies
consists of treatment
with combinations of
medicines based on a
molecule called artemisinin, which is rapid
and effective. A vaccine would also be a control
strategy directed against the parasite which,
in combination with other strategies, could
contribute significantly to the eradication of
malaria.
3
4. What are we doing at ISGLOBAL, the Barcelona Institute for Global Health?
The Barcelona Institute for Global Health 1. The study of the molecular basis of the
(ISGlobal) is a not-for-profit organisation whose disease as well as the variety of immune
objective is to improve the health and devel- responses.
opment of the most vulnerable populations
through the creation, management, transmis- 2. The development of new medicines and the
sion and application of knowledge. Its vision is assessment of their safety and efficacy.
of a world in which we can all enjoy good health,
and it receives support from the “La Caixa” 3. The assessment of the epidemiological
Foundation, among others. characteristics of malaria in different set-
tings and of the social and cultural factors
One of the essential pillars of ISGlobal is re- that surround it.
search that concentrates on health problems
that affect the most vulnerable populations, 4. The analysis of the effectiveness of various
which is conducted at its Barcelona Centre for prevention tools and the cost-effectiveness
International Health Research (CRESIB). The ratio of these interventions.
research on malaria which is done at CRESIB
focuses on: As part of this role (4) CRESIB carries out clini-
cal studies of the safety and efficacy of vaccines.
It is currently participating in the development
of the RTS,S vaccine against malaria, which is
showing itself to be effective in more than 50%
of infected children. At the same time, CRESIB
investigators are conducting research to identify
new vaccine candidates.
4
5. Workshop objectives 1
In this workshop we invite you to analyse vari-
ous candidates for the vaccine against malaria
along with those that CRESIB is researching
to identify which is the best candidate. The
candidates for the CRESIB vaccine have been
obtained from parasite proteins that have been
purified beforehand.
To analyse them, we have a number of blood
samples from people living in malaria-affected
areas who have had the disease on various oc-
casions and who are now immunised.
To confirm that our vaccine candidates are ef-
fective, we must show that immunised people
have developed a response to these candidates.
If activation of the immune response against
the candidate proteins is found in these people,
it will mean that they could be good vaccine 2
candidates because they could also trigger the
response necessary to protect people against
future infection.
3
5
6. The objective of this workshop is to familiarise that they are capable of activating a good im-
you with one of the techniques most often used mune response, and that they could therefore
in biomedical laboratories, the ELISA (enzyme- be good candidates.
linked immunosorbent assay) technique.
Using this technique, we will specifically
This is an analysis that detects whether anti- discover which of the antigens available in our
bodies are present in blood samples. The pres- laboratory is a good candidate for a vaccine
ence of candidate-specific antibodies indicates against malaria.
Basic principles of the ELISA technique
The basic principle behind this technique is To carry out this identification, the antibodies
based on the interaction of the vaccine candi- used have a molecule attached to them called
date, or antigen (1), with the antibody (2). A spe- an enzyme (3), which has the ability to react
cific antibody will bind to a specific antigen to with a substance called a substrate (4), which
create an exclusive antibody-antigen complex. we will add to produce a colour.
The ELISA technique allows us to identify Therefore, if the sample contains the antibody
whether antibodies were present, and whether, we wish to detect, it will bind to what we have
as a result, antibody-antigen complexes were added, which is bound to an enzyme that will
formed when they came into contact with blood in turn cause the substrate to change colour,
samples containing the vaccine candidates. thereby telling us that the results are positive.
Substrate
Enzyme
Antibody
Antigen
1. Antigen: any foreign substance that binds specifically to the specified antibodies or lymphocytes and activates an immune
response. In general antigens have a high molecular weight; normally they are proteins or polysaccharides.
2. Antibody: proteins (immunoglobulins, Ig) from serum that are formed as a response to the invasion of the body by foreign
molecules, whether due to natural exposure or an antigen introduced by vaccine immunization. They are in the form of
a Y, and are made up of four polypeptide chains that are kept connected by interchain disulfide bonds. Antibodies have a
constant region and a variable region.
3. Enzyme: a protein that facilitates specific reactions of the metabolism.
4. Substrate: a solution that contains a compound acted upon by an enzyme.
6
7. Organisation of the workshop
To analyse which vaccine candidate or antigen against malaria have antibodies against them.
is the most effective, we will test whether the To do so we will divide the experiment into three
blood samples from persons who are immunized main stages.
1. BINDING OF THE CANDIDATE PROTEINS (OR ANTIGENS) TO THE SURFACE OF THE WELLS
The first step will be to fix the candidate proteins that are being studied to a solid support
2. FORMATION OF ANTIBODY-ANTIGEN COMPLEXES
We then add the blood sample, specifically blood serum (blood samples with the cells and clotting
factors removed), and an antibody marked with an enzyme that we will call the secondary antibody.
In the blood samples in which the antibody being studied was present, antibody-antigen complexes
will be formed, which will in turn bind to the antibody marked with the enzyme.
Serum Secondary
from the antibody marked
patients with an enzyme
3. READING THE REACTION
Finally, we will add the enzyme substrate which, if the antibody antigen complex is present, will
change colour. In this way we will learn if the blood samples contain the antibody being studied, and
in what quantity.
Substrate
from the
enzyme
Results and conclusions
Once the results are obtained, we can decide intense immune response and may therefore be
which vaccine candidate activates the most the best candidate.
7
8. Equipment and material
required
Laboratory instruments and utensils
Magnetic stirrer (1) (for Stir bar and Micropipettes
preparing PBS-Tween) “stir bar retriever” of 20 to 200 µl (2)
Test tube, Glass bottle,
Timer Funnel
100 ml 250 ml
Consumables
Strips with 12 wells Graduated plastic Pasteur Tips for the micropipettes
for ELISA, and supports pipettes
Absorbent paper Permanent marker Gloves, goggles and apron
1. If you do not have a magnetic stirrer, the PBS liquid may be purchased
2. If you do not have micropipettes, you may use small-volume Pasteur pipettes
8
9. Reagents and samples
PBS buffer solution (3) Tween-20 detergent (4) Distilled water
Secondary antibody
A B C+ C-
Vaccine candidates Positive controls Secondary antibody
(antigens) and negative controls (5) with enzyme
(peroxidase)
Substrate
1 2 3 4
Substrate, or colouring Serum samples from four people residing in areas in which
solution malaria is endemic, and who are immune to the disease
3. Helps to maintain the solution pH thanks to sodium and potassium phosphates
4. Helps prevent binding of nonspecific antibodies
5. C+: contains a mixture of serum from people residing in areas where malaria is endemic and who
are immune to the disease. C-: mixture of serum from people who have never been exposed to malaria
9
10. Procedures
To identify the presence or absence of specific blood serum) of different patients residing in
antibodies to the vaccine candidate antigens areas where malaria is endemic to see if we
we have in the laboratory, we will use these find specific antibodies against our antigens in
antigens to challenge the blood (actually the their serum.
1 Binding of the antigens to the surface of the wells
The micro-well strips are covered with the vac- The binding of these antigens to the surface of
cine candidates (antigens) that we wish to test the wells is easily brought about since they are
to see if they would be good candidates for a made of a treated plastic that has a great ability
vaccine against malaria. to bind proteins.
PROTOCOL FOR BINDING ANTIGENS TO THE SURFACE OF THE WELLS
1
Note below what you will place in each well (controls, blood samples and the names of the
antigens that you will analyse).
2
Permanently mark the wells
where you place each sample.
10
11. 3
Prepare a washing solution (PBS-Tween 0.05%).
A B
Measure 200 ml of distilled water using the
test tube, adjusting the volume with the Place the stir bar in the bottle, and dilute
Pasteur pipette. Use the funnel to add 200 ml one PBS tablet with water using the
of distilled water to the bottle. magnetic stirrer.
C D
When the tablet has dissolved, extract the
stir bar and add 100 µl of Tween-20 using a Remove it carefully inverting the bottle
plastic Pasteur pipette. several times.
Note: The washing solution contains PBS (phosphate buffer saline), which allows the antibodies to be kept in a stable envi-
ronment that helps to preserve their structure. Tween-20 is a detergent that helps to eliminate the proteins that have been
able to bind in a nonspecific manner, and also adheres to the portions of the well that are not covered by the antigen, thereby
reducing background noise.
11
12. 4 5
Add the two
test antigens to
the respective
wells using the
micropipette
(50 µl per well). It
is important that
you use a clean
tip to dispense the
antigens to avoid
contamination.
Allow it to incubate for 5 minutes at
room temperature.
6 7
Wash it to eliminate the excess antigen
Eliminate the remainder of the antigen not bound to the strip. To do this, fill the
by inverting the strip over the absorbent wells with the washing solution using a
paper. plastic Pasteur pipette.
8 9
Discard the washing solution by inverting
the strip over absorbent paper. Repeat steps 7 and 8.
12
13. 2 Formation of antibody-antigen complexes
In this step we will first condition the serum of called peroxidase. As each primary antibody can
the patients to determine whether they contain bind with more than one secondary antibody,
antibodies against the vaccine candidate. The the amount of colour obtained in step three will
antibodies that we wish to test will be called be enhanced. The sensitivity of the technique is
primary antibodies. We will then add a second- thereby increased.
ary antibody which is marked with an enzyme
Serum Secondary
from the antibody marked
patients with enzyme
PROTOCOL FOR FORMATION OF ANTIBODY-ANTIGEN COMPLEXES
1 2
Add the positive and negative controls Add the different serum samples
to the respective wells using the from 4 residents of the areas
micropipette (50 µl per well). where malaria is endemic to the
The positive control (C+) contains a corresponding wells using the
mixture of serum from people residing micropipette (50 µl per well).
in areas where malaria is endemic and
who are immune to the disease. The
negative control (C-) contains a mixture
of serum from people who have never
been exposed to malaria.
13
14. 3 4
Allow it to incubate for 5 minutes at Eliminate the excess antigen by inverting
room temperature. the strip over absorbent paper.
5 6
Wash all the wells to eliminate the
antibodies that have not reacted with
the antigens and which are therefore not
specific. Fill the wells with the washing Discard the washing solution by inverting
solution using a plastic Pasteur pipette. the strip over absorbent paper.
7 8
Using the micropipette, add the
secondary antibody which is bound to an
Repeat the steps five or six more times. enzyme to all the wells (50 µl per well).
14
15. 9 10
Eliminate the excess secondary
Allow it to incubate for 5 minutes at antibodies by inverting the strip over
room temperature. absorbent paper.
11 12
Wash the wells by filling them with the Discard the washing solution by inverting
washing solution using a plastic Pasteur the strip over absorbent paper.
pipette.
13
Repeat the two previous steps three more times.
15
16. 3 Reading the reaction
After washing to eliminate all the marked
molecules that have not been fixed in the form
of antibody-antigen complexes, the enzyme
substrate solution is added to facilitate the
change of colour.
Substrate
from the
enzyme
PROTOCOL FOR READING THE REACTION
1 2
Add the enzyme substrate to all the Allow it to incubate for 5 minutes. During
wells using the micropipette this time the substrate will bind to the
(50 µl per well). enzyme at room temperature and the
colour will begin to appear.
16
17. 3
Assemble the results in the form of bar graphs.
ANTIGEN 1
Maximum
Intensity
Minimum Samples
C+ C- M1 M2 M3 M4
ANTIGEN 2
Maximum
Intensity
Minimum Samples
C+ C- M1 M2 M3 M4
17
18. Results and conclusions
Interpret and record the results
1. Which of the antigens that you have tested do you believe is the best vaccine candidate?
Do you believe that the antigens that you have tested are good vaccine candidates? Why?
2. When is a reaction positive and when is it negative? Why?
3. Why do you think the controls are used?
18
19. 4. Which part of the primary antibody is recognised by the secondary antibody? The constant
region or the variable region? Give reasons for your answer.
5. What would happen if we did not do the washing before adding the colouring substrate?
6. Could we use blood from your classmates to determine whether our laboratory antigens
are good candidates for a vaccine against malaria? Give reasons for your answer.
7. Do you believe that this experiment has shown that the selected candidate stimulates the
immune response? Would you have to do some other type of experiment to assess whether it
is also capable of activating some other type of response?
19
20. Annex I
OBLIGATORY USE OBLIGATORY USE OBLIGATORY USE
OF GOGGLES OF APRON OF GLOVES
Safety precautions
BE INFORMED or corrosive products. Do not place reagent
Find out where the safety equipment of the containers near a flame. Do not heat inflam-
laboratory or the place where you are experi- mable liquids. Carry bottles holding them from
menting is located (fire extinguishers, show- beneath, never by the neck.
ers or baths, exits, etc.). Read the instructions
carefully before doing an experiment. Do not WASTE DISPOSAL
forget to read the safety labelling for reagents Deposit broken glass, reagents that are toxic,
and equipment. noxious or harmful to the environment and
biological waste in special and appropriately la-
USE PROPER CLOTHING belled receptacles. Never dispose of solid waste
Gloves, apron and goggles. using the sink.
GENERAL STANDARDS In case of accident, advise the instructor im-
Smoking, eating or drinking in the laboratory or mediately. Remember: If you have a question,
area where you are experimenting is prohibited. ask the trainer.
Wash your hands before leaving the labora-
tory. Work in a neat and orderly fashion without SPECIFIC PRECAUTIONS
hurry. If any product should spill, clean it up FOR THIS WORKSHOP
immediately. Always leave materials clean and During this practice session you must follow
orderly. Never use equipment or apparatuses the usual precautions for handling of chemi-
without perfectly understanding how they work. cal products. Below are listed only those that
present the following degrees of hazard:
HANDLING OF GLASS
Protect your hands when handling materials • PBS:
made of glass. Do not use cracked glass items. toxic when ingested, inhaled or in contact with
the skin.
CHEMICAL PRODUCTS
Do not use unlabelled containers of reagents. • Tween 20:
Do not sniff, inhale, taste or touch chemical toxic when ingested, inhaled or in contact with
products. Never pipette by mouth. Wear gloves the skin. Irritant.
and wash your hands frequently if you use toxic
Annex II
Reagent references
NAME: REFERENCES COMMERCIAL MANUFACTURER
PBS P4417-50TAB Sigma
Tween-20 P1379-100ML Sigma
CHK IGY, bagged (= ANTIGEN) 1662406EDU BioRad
RB ANTI-CHK, bagged (= PLASMA) 1662407EDU BioRad
GAR-HRP, bagged (= SECONDARY ANTIBODY) 1662408EDU BioRad
COLOURING SUBSTRATE 1662402EDU BioRad
20
21. Learn more at Xplore Health!
Researchers who have contributed content: Laura Puyol, investigator for CRESIB, ISGlobal.
DEVELOPED BY
This work has been included with an Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs
3.0 Unported Creative Commons license. to see a copy of the license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/