Animal research has contributed significantly to public health throughout history. Key developments include vaccines for polio and other diseases, antibiotics, and Louis Pasteur's rabies vaccine. Animal models are important because many animals, like mice and pigs, share anatomical and genetic similarities with humans, making them suitable for studying human diseases. New medical advancements continue to emerge from animal research, such as robotic surgery techniques developed using pig models. Overall, responsible animal research has improved human and animal health and led to many life-saving advances.

1. 2015
Eva Quintero
IDS 4934-001 (25590)
April 8, 2015
Contributions of Animal Research
to Public Health:
A Look in the Past and into the Future

2. Introduction
For centuries animals have been used for biological research and expanded our
knowledge of medicine and public health. This paper will focus on the history, ethics, and
scientific developments associated with animal research specifically in relation to the public
health system. This paper will also contain information regarding new technological
advancements and improvements in the field of animal research.
There are many ethical and real world issues associated with animal experimentation.
However, even with today’s advances in technology, animals continue to be used for the
development of new life-saving drugs and medical procedures. Animals share many
physiological and genetic similarities with humans, making them ideal models for biological
studies. Throughout history, animal research has contributed to the maintenance and promotion
of public health. Therefore, the use of animals in a responsible and ethical manner for
biomedical research is needed in order to make further advances in human health. Animal
testing is a necessary means for advances in scientific knowledge particularly regarding the
surveillance and prevention of disease in public health.
History of Animal Research
I. Animal research is hardly a new concept and has a surprisingly long history. Aristotle is
believed to be one of the first known to have performed experiments on living animals (Hajar,
2011). Likewise, a Roman physician named Galen dissected goats and pigs to learn of their
anatomy and physiology, a practice which later earned him the title “the father of vivisection”
(Lloyd, 2008). The first observations of great importance to modern science were made in the
1600s, when William Harvey used animals to describe the blood circulatory system (Lloyd

3. 2008). These are only a few examples of how animals have allowed us to better understand the
mechanisms of the human body.
Ethics
II. Despite this, there is an ongoing debate about the ethics of animal experimentation. Many
people feel that it is wrong or selfish to treat animals as tools in order to gain scientific
knowledge. On the contrary, others believe that the benefits that arise out of experimentation
outweigh any harm done to the animal. There are some who consider health as an “asset shared
by all species, animal and human, that would be guaranteed by a single medicine guided by
biomedical research” (DuCrot, 2011). In other words, both animals and humans share the overall
benefits that arise from animal experimentation.
Throughout its history, the practice of using animals for biomedical research has come
under severe criticism by society and more recently by animal rights groups and animal activists.
Those who oppose animal research would agree that animals have a moral status equal to that of
humans and therefore feel that it is wrong to needlessly hurt other animals. In the 17th century,
English philosopher John Locke fully recognized that animals were capable of feeling pain and
certain emotions and stated that “children should be brought up to abhor the killing or torturing
of any living thing in order to prevent them from later becoming capable of cruel actions to
fellow humans” (Franco, 2013).
There are many modern day organizations that strongly oppose the animal research
including People for the Ethical Treatment of Animal (PETA) and the Animal Liberation Front
(ALF). These organizations focus their attentions on protecting animals from cruelty and abuse,
removing the status of animals as property, and ending animal testing. Many times, animal rights
activists have carried out raids to release animals from laboratories and farms. There are

4. documented cases where organizations such as the Oxford Arson Squad have participated in acts
of physical violence, arson, and property damage to animal research facilities (Animal extremists
'more violent', 2005). The humane treatment of research animals is certainly a legitimate point;
however, total elimination of animal testing would significantly withhold the discovery of new
medicines, treatments, and other scientific developments.
In today’s society, the concept and understanding of animal health research is changing,
along with the perception of scientists' personalities. In the 1950’s scientists were regarded in
high esteem even though they were not completely understood. In recent times, however,
scientists are often stereotyped as remote, withdrawn, secretive, and unpopular. There is a
common misconception that scientists deliberately inflict harm, pain, distress, or death on
laboratory animals. Andrew Rowan puts it well when he states “There is a constant tug of war in
the public mind between perceptions of the scientist as hero and as villain” (1995). In other
words, scientists are both admired for their contributions to public health but criticized for their
methods involving animal use.
Animal Welfare Regulations
III. According to Rachel Hajar, “issues such as ‘cruelty’ to animals and the humane
treatment of animals are valid concerns, and hence, the use of animals in experimentation is
greatly regulated” (2011). These regulations include but are not limited to pain management and
the use of anesthesia for animal subjects, providing appropriate living conditions, and requiring
proper training to those who handle the animals.
Those in favor of animal experimentation would argue that there are many principles and
regulations involved with animal research that research institutions and organizations must
adhere to which are designed to ensure the best possible treatment of the animals used in a study.

5. For instance, there are many studies that focus on behavior, genetics, diet and exercise among
others that do not cause pain or suffering to the subject. Another principle involves the use of
less complex organisms whenever possible such as fish, birds, and fruit flies. The use of these
organisms would be preferred over mammals in regards to a moral standing, although sometimes
the use of mammals is necessary to the study and cannot be avoided. It is important for society to
understand that laboratory animal facilities are regulated by government agencies and require
researchers to provide justification for using animals.
One of the biggest changes to animal research was the integration of the 3 “R’s, which
serve as guiding principles for the ethics of animal experimentation. The three R’s encourage
individuals to 1) replace animals with non-living models when possible (2) reduce the number of
animals used to obtain sufficient data to answer the research question; and (3) refine animal use
practices to minimize pain and distress, and to enhance the welfare of an animal used (Hajar,
2011). These guidelines have helped buffer some of the negative attitudes of those who feel
uncomfortable with animal experimentation by advocating humane experimental techniques.
By employing the 3Rs when continuing to use animals for scientific research, the scientific
community can affirm its moral conscience as well as uphold its obligation to society to further
the advancement of science for civilization and our public health system.
With a better understanding of the methodologies involved in animal research it is
important to recognize the significant impact that animals have made in public health and
modern medicine. Some of the major influences of animal experimentation on public health
include the development of vaccines, life-saving drugs and treatments, and data regarding
diseases of the past as well as current medical conditions. The development and production of

6. vaccines and antitoxins led to a dramatic increase in the number of animals used in biomedical
research (Franco, 2013).
Contributions of Animal Research to Public Health
IV. The use of animal models has led to the creation of vaccines for diseases like polio,
measles, whooping cough, and others. By the early twentieth century, bacterial diseases had been
studied extensively and the use of antibiotics was beginning to take effect. Viral diseases,
however, were not as well understood. During the 1950s, decades of laboratory research on the
polio virus had improved scientists’ ability to study it and to cultivate it in animals. Without
proper treatment, prevention consisted mostly of advice to avoid beaches, swimming pools, and
crowds during the summer season.
According to the CDC, polio crippled around 35,000 people each year from 1940 to 1950
in the United States alone, making it one of the most feared diseases of the era (Polio, n.d). By
injecting cultured fluid from the polio virus into mice and monkeys, scientists were able to
reproduce paralysis typical of polio in the subjects and ultimately developed a vaccine used to
treat the disease (Hansen, 2009). Without the use of animal models, the virus may have
continued to spread and crippled thousands more people. Franco states that “by the end of the
nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century, the pharmacopeia had effective, scientifically
tested drugs, a landmark that allowed for an increasing number of people to understand the
importance and validity of scientifically sound medical knowledge and, with it, the relevance of
animal-based research” (2013).
Another important topic of concern regarding animal research involves diseases that can
be transmitted from animals to humans. These diseases are referred to as zoonotic, and have
impacted society throughout history and continue to cause problems. Animals are seen

7. throughout our public health system. Apart from serving as research models, they also represent
sources of food as well as forming a part of our daily lives as companion animals. These
relationships with animals expose us to a number of animal diseases that can be acquired by
humans including rabies, brucellosis, leishmaniasis and echinococcosis. These diseases continue
to occur in many countries causing the deaths of millions of people every year.
Studies show that animals may also be healthy carriers of agents that are pathogenic for
humans but which do not affect the health of the animal (for example, Salmonella and
Campylobacter) (Ducrot, 2011). Regarding zoonotic diseases, animal research provides a
mutually beneficial outcome for both animals and humans by eliminating the disease in both
groups.
One of the most noteworthy cases of animal research involving zoonotic diseases was
that of Louis Pasteur and his influential work on immunology, specifically for the rabies virus.
Louis Pasteur was a French chemist and microbiologist who hypothesized that microorganisms
could be the causative agents of many diseases that affected humans and other animals (Franco,
2013). His study of microorganisms allowed him to develop the “pasteurization” method which
would destroy bacteria found in food that would cause it to spoil. Furthermore, he was able to
identify several types of zoonotic diseases including Staphylococcus, Streptococcus,
Clostridium, as well as the causative agents of anthrax (Franco, 2013).
Rabies in particular was a concerning disease for both animals and humans in the 19th
century. The virus itself causes acute inflammation of the brain and when left untreated leads to
violent movements, a distinct fear of water, an inability to move parts of the body, confusion,
and loss of consciousness (Rabies, 2013). After symptoms appear, rabies almost always results in
death.

8. In his experiments, Pasteur infected rabbits and dogs with the rabies virus in his attempts
to find a cure. The public heavily slated Pasteur’s use of animals, particularly dogs. It was
known, however, that Pasteur was perceptive to animal suffering and used several techniques to
limit the animals’ pain or distress. He made sure that animals were anesthetized whenever
possible to prevent unnecessary suffering and he even use what we now call “humane endpoints”
or euthanasia if he thought the animal was experiencing too much discomfort (Franco, 2013). In
the end, Pasteur was able to create the first vaccine for rabies, one of his many direct
contributions to public health using animal research. The vaccine was also a major development
for veterinary medicine as it saved countless animals from acquiring rabies and enduring the
horrific symptoms.
Similarities Between Animal Models and Humans
V. Yet another reason why animal use is so crucial to our understanding of medicine and
disease is because of their genetic and physiologic resemblance to humans. Many animals,
specifically mammals, share many anatomical and genetic similarities with humans, making
them good models for biological studies. In today’s animal research facilities, rodents such as
mice and rats have been the primary models for studying specific aspects of human pathogenesis
and immunity (Lanzas, 2010). In fact, rodents are the most commonly used laboratory animals,
making up nearly 80% of the total of animals used in the European Union, followed by cold-
blooded animals (fish, amphibians and reptiles, making up a total of 9.6%) and birds (6.3%)
(Franco, 2013).
Historically, Nuno Franco states that “the toning down of the opposition to animal use in
the life sciences had also something to do with the emergence of rodent species as a recurrent
animal model in research” (2013). Seen as sources of disease and considered pests, rodents like

9. mice and rats were despised by the public and therefore made them less worthy of moral
consideration. Scientists took this as an opportunity to use this to their advantage and began to
adopt them as their research models. As it turns out, rodents make excellent research models not
only for their anatomical and physiological similarities but also for their inexpensive housing
costs and care. For genetic studies, rodents reproduce easily and scientists are able to quickly
obtain results over a short period of time.
“In 2002, the mouse became the second mammal, after humans, to have its whole
genome sequenced” (Franco, 2013). Studies have shown that 75% of mouse genes have
equivalents in humans, making them an essential model for human medicine (2002 Release: The
Mouse Genome And The Measure of Man, 2012). Knowing that mice carry virtually the same
sets of genes as humans allows scientists to experimentally test and learn more about the
function of human genes, ultimately leading to better understanding of human disease and the
development of treatments and cures. The improvements in the genome research project, along
with other technologies, have opened unlimited possibilities for the understanding of gene
function and their influence in several genetic and non-genetic diseases.
While rodents are making a significant impact in the laboratory, farm animals are serving
as natural models for a wide range of human infectious diseases at the veterinary and agricultural
level. Veterinary public health is focusing on using farm animals to better understand pathogens
that are shared by both livestock and humans. According to a recent study, more than half of
human infectious diseases are caused by multi-host pathogens for which farm animals are often
natural hosts and serve as infection reservoirs for humans (Lanzas, 2010). The use of farm
animals is becoming increasingly popular for studying infectious disease dynamics at the
population level.

10. Human health is inextricably linked to animal health and production. Farm animals make
up a substantial part of our diet, therefore it is critical to maintain their health and continue to
promote the importance of food safety in public health. For instance, veterinary public health is a
branch of the World Health Organization that focuses on the diagnosis, surveillance,
epidemiology, control, prevention and elimination of zoonotic diseases (Veterinary public health,
n.d.). In doing this, it is incorporating animal research into farm animals and agriculture.
Veterinary public health is also directly involved with the management of health aspects of
laboratory animal facilities and diagnostic laboratories to ensure the wellbeing of animals being
used for biomedical research.
Medical Advancements and Animal Research
VI. Every day, animal research is reaching new heights and expanding our knowledge of
modern medicine. Some of the newer developments in animal research include the new
production of biological products and medical devices as well development of life-saving drugs
such as cancer-fighting agents. Animals have even been used as models in clinical trials for
successful organ transplantation.
Modern technology has brought about a vast amount of new and beneficial devices,
particularly in the field of medicine. Devices such as surgical robotics are being seen in operating
rooms more and more frequently. M. Michael Swindle defines robotic surgery as the “use of a
remote console by a surgeon distant from the patient allowing the user to operate by means of a
virtual three-dimensional procedure” (2007). Robotic surgery with the da Vinci Surgical System
was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in 2000 (Robotic Surgery, n.d). The
technique has been rapidly adopted by hospitals in the United States and other parts of the world
for use in the treatment of a wide range of conditions. Robotic surgery has revolutionized the

11. idea of minimally invasive surgery and has proven to be very useful for common procedures
such as hysterectomies, cholecystectomies, nephrectomies, prostatectomies, among others.
Swine are routinely used as models for robotic surgeries for several reasons. Swine share
many anatomical similarities to humans which make them ideal models for robotic surgical
procedures, which require training both using in vitro and in vivo models (Swindle, 2007). Pigs
have all of the same thoracic and abdominal organs as humans with only minor differences in a
few organs. The most common areas of interests include the cardiovascular, urinary,
integumentary, and digestive systems. Retroperitoneal fat is almost absent in the pig which
facilitates laparoscopic procedures in the abdominal cavity as well allowing medical students and
doctors to enhance their techniques on an animal model before transitioning to a clinical setting
(Ruurda 2003). . Some of the benefits of minimally invasive surgery include: fewer
complications, such as surgical site infection, less pain and blood loss, quicker recovery, and
smaller, less noticeable scars. Technology of this kind is expected to continue to evolve and
improve with the help and use of animal models.
Swine have also effectively served to provide a better understanding of the cardiovascular
system. According to the literature, “the size of the heart and blood vessels in sexually mature
Hanford minipigs is more analogous to the size in humans than is either the dog or the nonhuman
primate” (Swindle, 2012). In fact, studies found that the blood supply to the coronary arteries and
the blood circulatory system of pigs is similar to 90% of the human population making them
ideal candidates for cardiovascular system studies (Swindle 2012).
The use of swine in the biomedical research has created a profound effect in both the
surgical environment as well providing further insight on the anatomical structures and functions
of the human body. Michael Swindle respectfully acknowledges the use of swine in the

12. laboratory when he states that “a brief review can only scratch the surface of the potential for
swine research models, but it illustrates the versatility of the pig and the wide variety of studies
in which pigs can be used” (2012).
Without a doubt, the use of animals in biological research has changed the history of
human medicine. The study of animals of all different species has made it possible to overcome
disease and created the foundations for a better public health system. The question remains, how
long will animal research continue to be necessary for the benefits of science and modern
medicine and when will it be deemed appropriate to discontinue the use of animal models?
Controversy Regarding Retired Animal Research Models
VII. A recent article discusses the controversy of the retirement of hundreds of non-human
primates that are being held for potential medical experimentation. According to the article, the
National Institutes of Health is responsible for hundreds of chimpanzees distributed throughout
several government research facilities, many of whom are aging and have been intentionally
infected with HIV or hepatitis (Bonifield, 2015). Although a few of the chimps have been
relocated to sanctuaries for retirement, more than 300 of them remain at the research facilities
and several have already died waiting on approval for their release.
It is unfortunate for these chimpanzees to be kept in laboratory confinement especially
since the NIH has admitted that scientific advances have rendered the use of non-human primates
largely unnecessary for research (Bonifield, 2015). However, due to the health complications of
the animals, the release of the chimpanzees is a complicated process. The majority of the chimps
have been infected with HIV or hepatitis. These diseases require daily treatments or medications
that could not be easily administered at the sanctuaries.

13. The unusual circumstances of these chimpanzees creates a dilemma associated with the
long term effects of research studies and brings up the ethical problems regarding the quality of
life of the animals. These are the challenges that society faces concerning animal models for
research and many times it is uncertain what should be the best approach to these types of
situations. Ultimately, scientists should make every effort to obtain the most relevant data and
information from these animals and attempt to use alternative and more efficient models for
upcoming projects.
Conclusion
Overall, there is an overwhelming amount of evidence illustrating how animal models
have impacted our public health system and contributed to our understanding of modern
medicine. The purpose of this paper was to illustrate the necessity of animal research for medical
advancements and improvements in our public health system as well discuss the history, ethics,
and numerous contributions animal models have made to biomedical science.
With each century came new changes and developments that improved both the lives of
humans and animals. From discovering life-saving vaccines that helped eradicate disease to
improving surgical skills of today’s doctors, animals have undoubtedly impacted the scientific
community. Still, animal research remains a controversial matter. It is crucial to acknowledge
that when used appropriately, animal medicine can save both the lives of humans and other
animals. Moreover, government agencies have made strenuous efforts to ensure that animal
models used in biological research receive the best treatment and quality of life. New regulations
and principles regarding animal experimentation have allowed society to be more accepting of it
and encouraged researchers to refine their studies so that they can obtain the most data from each
experiment. If used in an appropriate and responsible manner, animals used in biomedical

14. research can continue to serve as a leading scientific means of medical advancement and remain
an ongoing source of improvement to our public health system.

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