Anesthesia breathing systems are used to deliver anesthetic gases and oxygen during anesthesia. They aim to deliver gases with minimal increase in airway resistance while offering a safe and convenient method of delivery. All systems have two purposes - delivery of oxygen/gases and elimination of carbon dioxide. Systems are typically classified as open, semi-open, semi-closed, or closed based on the presence of a gas reservoir bag, ability to rebreathe gases, means of neutralizing carbon dioxide, and presence of unidirectional valves. Common semi-open systems include various Mapleson circuits like the Bain circuit, while semi-closed systems incorporate a carbon dioxide absorber and three-way valves, like the circle system.
anaesthesia Breathing circuits and its classification and functional analysisprateek gupta
anaesthesia breathing circuits. mapleson circuits. classification of circuits. functional analysia of circuits. draw over circuit. advantages and disadvantages of different circuits.
A breathing system is a device that conducts gases such as oxygen and anesthetic agents to the patient and conducts waste gases such as CO2 away.
Breathing systems are classified as
Open,
Semi-open,
Semi-closed
Closed.
Semi-closed systems are further divided into
Rebreathing Systems With CO2 Absorption,
Rebreathing Systems Without CO2 Absorption
Non-rebreathing Systems.
More simply, systems can be classified in two groups:
systems with CO2 washout (includes open and semi-open systems)
systems with CO2 absorption (includes closed and semi-closed systems).
anaesthesia Breathing circuits and its classification and functional analysisprateek gupta
anaesthesia breathing circuits. mapleson circuits. classification of circuits. functional analysia of circuits. draw over circuit. advantages and disadvantages of different circuits.
A breathing system is a device that conducts gases such as oxygen and anesthetic agents to the patient and conducts waste gases such as CO2 away.
Breathing systems are classified as
Open,
Semi-open,
Semi-closed
Closed.
Semi-closed systems are further divided into
Rebreathing Systems With CO2 Absorption,
Rebreathing Systems Without CO2 Absorption
Non-rebreathing Systems.
More simply, systems can be classified in two groups:
systems with CO2 washout (includes open and semi-open systems)
systems with CO2 absorption (includes closed and semi-closed systems).
mapleson circuits used in anesthesia practice, are in their way out but it is as important to know the mechanism with which the gases flow to and fro through them.
mapleson circuits used in anesthesia practice, are in their way out but it is as important to know the mechanism with which the gases flow to and fro through them.
Simple,inexpensive and rugged,parts are easy to dismentle and sterilize, safe to use.
Delivers the right gas mixture
Allows all methods of ventilation in all age groups
Resistence low at flows in practice
Compression and compliance loss is less.
Sturdy, small and light
Allows easy removal of waste gases
Easy to maintain with low running costs
Breathing circuits connects the patient to the anaesthesia machine through endotracheal tube or mask.
A pathway in which volatile agents and oxygen is delivered and co2 is removed.
These are divide into: Open system
Semi-closed system
Closed system
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Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
2. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Purpose
To deliver anesthetic gases and oxygen
Offer a means to deliver anesthesia without significant increase in
airway resistance
To offer a convenient and safe method of delivering inhaled
anesthetic agents
3. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Basic Principles
All anesthesia breathing systems have 2
fundamental purposes
Delivery of O2/Anesthetic gases
Elimination of CO2 (either by washout with
adequate fresh gas flow (FGF) or by soda lime
absorption)
4. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Resistance to flow can be minimized by:
Reducing the circuit’s length
Increasing the diameter
Avoiding the use of sharp bends
Eliminating unnecessary valves
Maintaining laminar flow
5. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Classifications (controversial)
Traditional attempts to classify circuits combine functional aspects (eg,
extent of rebreathing) with physical characteristics (eg, presence of
valves)
Based on the presence or absence of
A gas reservoir bag
Rebreathing of exhaled gases
Means to chemically neutralize CO2
Unidirectional valves
11. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Classifications
Semiopen
Gas reservoir bad present
NO rebreathing
No neutralization of CO2
No unidirectional valves
Fresh gas flow exceeds minute ventilation
Examples include
Mapleson A, B, C, D
Bain
Jackson-Rees
12. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Non-rebreathing circuits
Mapleson – 1954
Mapleson D still commonly used
Mapleson F is better known as Jackson-Rees
Modified Mapleson D is also called Bain
Used almost exclusively in children
Very low resistance to breathing
The degree of rebreathing is influenced by method of ventilation
Adjustable overflow valve
Delivery of FGF should be at least 2x the minute volume
13. +
Non-rebreathing Circuits
All non-rebreathing (NRB) circuits lack unidirectional valves
and soda lime CO2 absorption
Amount of rebreathing is highly dependent on fresh gas
flow (FGF)
Work of breathing is low (no unidirectional valves or soda
lime granules to create resistance)
14. +
How do NRB’s work?
During expiration, fresh gas flow (FGF) pushes
exhaled gas down the expiratory limb, where it
collects in the reservoir (breathing) bag and opens
the expiratory valve (pop-off or APL).
The next inspiration draws on the gas in the
expiratory limb. The expiratory limb will have less
carbon dioxide (less rebreathing) if FGF inflow is
high, tidal volume (VT) is low, and the duration of the
expiratory pause is long (a long expiratory pause is
desirable as exhaled gas will be flushed more
thoroughly).
All NRB circuits are convenient, lightweight, easily
scavenged.
15. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Mapleson
Used during transport of children
Minimal dead space, low resistance to breathing
Disadvantages
Scavenging (variable ability)
High flows
Lack of humidification/heat
Possibility of high airway pressures and barotrauma
18. +
Mapleson Components
Breathing Tubes
Corrugated tubes connect components of
Mapleson to pt
Large diameter (22mm) creates low-resistance
pathway for gases & potential reservoir for
gases
Volume = or > TV to minimize FGF requirements
Fresh Gas Inlet (position will determine type of Mapleson performance)
19. +
Mapleson Components
Pressure-Relief Valve (Pop-Off Valve, APL)
If gas inflow > pt’s uptake & circuit uptake =
press buildup (out via scavenger)
APL fully open during spontaneous ventilation
APL partial closure while squeezing breathing
bag
Breathing Bag
Reservoir Bag of gases
Method of generating positive pressure
ventilation
20. Mapleson A
Mapleson A
Since No gas is vented during expiration, high
unpredictable FGF (> 3 times minute ventilation) needed
to prevent rebreathing during mechanical ventilation
Most efficient design during spontAneous ventilation
since a FGF = minute ventilation will be enough to
prevent rebreathing)
21. Mapleson A (Magill) System
The Mapleson A or Magill system is good for
spontaneous breathing patients, so the fresh gas flow
can be lower. However as the APL valve is close to
the patient, it is regarded by many as difficult to use.
1950’s
22. Mapleson A (Lack) System
The Mapleson A or Lack system is a modification of
the Magill where the valve is moved to the machine
end of the system using another length of tubing. This
adds volume to the system and makes it rather heavy
at the patient end.
1976
23. +Mapleson D
FGF forces alveolar gas away from pt toward APL
valve
It requires very high fresh gas flows to prevent
rebreathing of CO2
Efficient during ControlleD Ventilation
FGIAPL
valve
24. +Mapleson F (Jackson Rees Modification)
The Mapleson F or Jackson
Rees modification of the Ayres
T Piece is a basic system for
use with very small patients. It
is a big disadvantage that you
cannot remove waste gases
safely.
Because this has a bag with an
open tail, it is technically a
Jackson-Rees Modification
system
Ayres – 1937
JR - 1950
25. Mapleson C Bagging System
The Mapleson C is more
than an anesthesia
system. It can be found all
over the hospital for use
as an emergency bagging
system for resuscitation or
manual ventilation using
oxygen, as well as being a
standard induction system
in some countries.
26. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Bain system
Coaxial version of Mapleson D
Fresh gas enters through narrow inner
tube
Exhaled gas exits through corrugated
outer tube
FGF required to prevent rebreathing:
200-300ml/kg/min with spontaneous
breathing (2 times VE)
70ml/kg/min with controlled
ventilation
1972
27. +
Bain at work (spontaneous)
Spontaneous: The breathing system should be filled with
FG before connecting to pt. During inspiration, the FG
from the machine, the reservoir bag and the corrugated
tube flow to the pt.
During expiration, there is a continuous FGF into the
system at the pt end. The expired gas gets continuously
mixed with the FG as it flows back into the corrugated
tube and the reservoir bag. Once the system is full, the
excess gas is vented to the scavenger.
During the expiratory pause the FG continues to flow
and fill the proximal portion of the corrugated tube while
the mixed gas is vented through the valve.
28. +
Bain at work (spontaneous)
During the next inspiration, the pt breaths FG as well as the
mixed gas from the corrugated tube. Many factors influence
the composition of the inspired mixture (FGF, resp rate,
expiratory pause, TV and CO2 production in the body). Factors
other than FGF cannot be manipulated in a spontaneously
breathing pt.
It has been mathematically calculated and clinically proved
that the FGF should be at least 1.5 to 2 times the patient’s
minute ventilation in order to minimize rebreathing to
acceptable levels.
29. Bain at work (controlled)
Controlled: To facilitate intermittent positive pressure ventilation,
the APL has to be partly closed so that it opens only after sufficient
pressure has developed in the system. When the system is filled
with fresh gas, the patient gets ventilated with the FGF from the
machine, the corrugated tube and the reservoir bag.
During expiration, the expired gas continuously gets mixed with the
fresh gas that is flowing into the system at the patient end.
During the expiratory pause the FG continues to enter the system
and pushes the mixed gas towards the reservoir.
30. +
Bain at work (controlled)
When the next inspiration is initiated, the patient gets ventilated
with the gas in the corrugated tube (a mixture of FG, alveolar
gas and dead space gas).
As the pressure in the system increases, the APL valve opens
and the contents of the reservoir bag are discharged into the
scavenger.
31. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Bain
Advantages
Warming of fresh gas inflow by surrounding
exhaled gases (countercurrent exchange)
Improved humidification with partial rebreathing
Ease of scavenging waste gases
Overflow/pressure valve (APL valve)
Disposable/sterile
32. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Bain
Disadvantages
Unrecognized disconnection
Kinking of inner fresh gas flow tubing
Requires high flows
Not easily converted to portable when commercially used
anesthesia machine adapter Bain circuit used
35. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Classifications
Semiclosed
A type of “circle system”
Always has a gas reservoir bag
Allows for PARTIAL rebreathing of exhaled
gases
Always provides for chemical neutralization of
CO2
Always contains 3 unidirectional valves
Fresh gas flow is less than minute ventilation
Examples: The machine we use everyday!
36. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Classifications
Closed
Always has a gas reservoir bag
Allows for TOTAL rebreathing of exhaled gases
Always provides for chemical neutralization of CO2
Always contains unidirectional valves
We don’t use these….Suffice to say you can do this
with the machines we have now if you keep your
fresh gas flow to metabolic requirements around
150ml/min
38. +
Optimization of Circle Design
Unidirectional Valves
Close to pt to prevent backflow into inspiratory limb if circuit leak
develops.
Fresh Gas Inlet
Placed between absorber & inspiratory valve. If placed downstream
from insp valve, it would allow FG to bypass pt during exhalation
and be wasted. FG placed between expiration valve and absorber
would be diluted by recirculating gas
39. +
Optimization of Circle Design
APL valve
Placed immediately before absorber to conserve absorption
capacity and to minimize venting of FG
Breathing Bag
Placed in expiratory limb to decrease resistance to exhalation. Bag
compression during controlled ventilation will vent alveolar gas thru
APL valve, conserving absorbent
40. +
Circle system can be:
closed (fresh gas inflow exactly equal to patient uptake,
complete rebreathing after carbon dioxide absorbed, and
pop-off closed)
semi-closed (some rebreathing occurs, FGF and pop-off
settings at intermediate values), or
semi-open (no rebreathing, high fresh gas flow)
41. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Circle systems
Unidirectional valves
Prevent inhalation of exhaled gases until they have passed
through the CO2 absorber (enforced pattern of flow)
Incompetent valve will allow rebreathing of CO2
Hypercarbia and failure of ETCO2 wave to return to baseline
Pop off (APL) Valve
Allows pressure control of inspiratory controlled ventilation
Allows for manual and assisted ventilation with mask, LMA, or
ETT
42. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Circle systems
Most commonly used
Adult and child appropriate sizes
Can be semiopen, semiclosed, or closed
dependent solely on fresh gas flow (FGF)
Uses chemical neutralization of CO2
Conservation of moisture and body heat
43. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Circle system
Allows for mechanical ventilation of the
lungs using the attached ventilator
Allows for adjustment of ventilatory
pressure
Is easily scavenged to avoid pollution of OR
environment
Low FGF’s saves money
44. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Advantages of rebreathing
Cost reduction (use less agent and O2)
Increased tracheal warmth and humidity
Decreased exposure of OR personnel to waste gases
Decreased pollution of the environment
REMEMBER that the degree of rebreathing in an anesthesia
circuit is increased as the fresh gas flow (FGF) supplied to the
circuit is decreased
46. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Dead space
Increases with the use of any anesthesia system
Unlike Mapleson circuits, the length of the breathing tube of
a circle system DOES NOT directly affect dead space
Like Mapleson’s, length DOES affect circuit compliance
(affecting amount of TV lost to the circuit during mech vent)
Increasing dead space increases rebreathing of CO2
To avoid hypercarbia in the face of an acute increase in dead
space, a patient must increase minute ventilation
Dead space ends where the inspiratory and expiratory gas
streams converge
47. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Carbon dioxide neutralization
Influenced by
Size of granules
Presence or absence of channeling in the canister (areas of loosely
packed granules, minimized by baffle system)
Tidal volume in comparison to void space of the canister
Ph sensitive dye
Ethyl violet indicator turns purple when soda lime exhausted (change
when 50-70% has changed color)
Regeneration: Exhausted granules may revert to original color if
rested, no significant recovery of absorptive capacity occurs
48. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Carbon dioxide neutralization
Maximum absorbent capacity 23-26L of CO2/100g granules
Granules designated by Mesh size (4-8 mesh)
A compromise between higher absorptive surface area of small
granules & the lower resistance to gas flow of larger granules
Toxic byproducts
The drier the soda lime, the more likely it will absorb & degrade
volatile anesthetics
49. +
Disadvantages of Circle System
Greater size, less portability
Increased complexity
Higher risk of disconnection or malfunction
Increased resistance
Dissuading use in Pediatrics
Difficulty of predicting inspired gas concentration during low
fresh gas flow
50. +
Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Airway Humidity Concerns
Anesthesia machine FGF dry and cold
Medical gas delivery systems supply dehumidified gases at room
temp.
Exhaled gas is saturated with H2O at body temp
High flows (5 L/min) low humidity
Low flows (<0.5 L/min) allow greater H2O saturation
Absorbent granules: significant source of heat/moisture
(soda lime 14-19% water content)
Normal upper airway humidification bypassed under
General Anesthesia
Passive heat and humidity (“Artificial Nose”)
Active heat and humidity (electrically heated humidifier)
51. +
Bacterial Contamination
Slight risk of microorganism retention in Circle system that
could (theoretically) lead to respiratory infections in subsequent
pts
Bacterial filters are incorporated into EXPIRATORY LIMB of the
circuit
52. Anesthesia Breathing Systems
Mode Reservoir Rebreathing Example
Open No No Open drop
Semi-open Yes No Nonrebreathing
circuit or
Circle at high
FGF (>VE)
Semi-closed Yes Yes, partial Circle at low FGF
(<VE)
Closed Yes Yes, complete Circle (if APL
valve closed)
53. +
Reference
Morgan, G. E., Mikhail, M. S.,
Murray, M. J., & Larson, P. C. ,
(2013). Clinical anesthesiology (4rd
ed.). New York: The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc..
Stoelting, R. K., Miller, R. D. ,(2007).
Basic of Anesthesia (5th ed.). New
York: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier,
Inc.
(2011). MemoryMaster. Des
Moines: