The document discusses anatomical homology, which refers to similarities in anatomical structures between different species. It provides examples of homologous structures like bones in pig and human forelimbs. Common descent argues these similarities are due to inheritance from a common ancestor. However, some counter that homologous structures can arise through different developmental pathways or genes. While common ancestry explains some homologous structures, there are also examples like whale flippers and ichthyosaur flippers that likely evolved independently and are analogous rather than homologous.
I am rajan an school teacher by profession with post graduation in English,psychology,economics and post graduate diploma in teaching English have been working in a school for 25 years,a remote village in kerala I came in this field not by chance as many in our
place but deliberately.I like this profession very much But I have very limited like minded people to share my views.I want to discuss with such people
1) Give one example of each of the following. a) a homologous molecul.pdfjeetumordhani
1) Give one example of each of the following. a) a homologous molecular trait shared by all
cellular organisms. b) a body part adapted to different functions in different species but showing
clear homology of underlying structure. c) a non-homologous similarity between organisms
adapted to similar habitats or niches (use an example NOT given in lecture). d) Amolecular
vestigial trait shared by all primates, but not most other mammals. e) Amorphological vestigial
trait shared by humans and great apes (chimpanzees, gorillas, etc.)but not vestigial in other
primates (e.g. monkeys). 2) What is meant by the \"ambiguity\" of species boundaries, and why
did Darwin use it as part of his argument for common descent? 3) The picture below shows three
species as embryos (left) and as adults (right). What is the name of the phenomenon it illustrates?
What evidence does the phenomenon give about evolution?
Solution
1.
a.Aminoacids : The 20 aminoacids are same in all cellular orgainsms.
b.Forelimbs
c.Stream lined body of sharks and whales, wings of birds and insects.
d.The gulono--lactone oxidase (GLO) pseudogene.
e.Coccyx is present in humans and great apes as fused bone but is not present in monkeys as they
have tails.
2.Ambiguity of species boundaries means there is always a confusion as to which organisms can
be grouped into species; wheather sexually reproducing organisms and asexually reproducing
organisms.What boundaries should exist so as to group organisms into species has always been
ambiguous.No such species boundaries were set earlier.Darwin used it as a part of his argument
for common ancestor because according to him god had created the species and this was known
as Creationism and he emphasized on the process of natural selection to be an active process that
led to evolution from common ancestor.
3.The phenomenon that the diagram illustrates is homology.Homology in embryo is known as
ontogenetic homology and means that two or more species share same embryological similarities
and it gives an evidence that all the three embryos of species have a common ancestor but in
process of time have undergone remodelling of body parts through natural selection..
I am rajan an school teacher by profession with post graduation in English,psychology,economics and post graduate diploma in teaching English have been working in a school for 25 years,a remote village in kerala I came in this field not by chance as many in our
place but deliberately.I like this profession very much But I have very limited like minded people to share my views.I want to discuss with such people
1) Give one example of each of the following. a) a homologous molecul.pdfjeetumordhani
1) Give one example of each of the following. a) a homologous molecular trait shared by all
cellular organisms. b) a body part adapted to different functions in different species but showing
clear homology of underlying structure. c) a non-homologous similarity between organisms
adapted to similar habitats or niches (use an example NOT given in lecture). d) Amolecular
vestigial trait shared by all primates, but not most other mammals. e) Amorphological vestigial
trait shared by humans and great apes (chimpanzees, gorillas, etc.)but not vestigial in other
primates (e.g. monkeys). 2) What is meant by the \"ambiguity\" of species boundaries, and why
did Darwin use it as part of his argument for common descent? 3) The picture below shows three
species as embryos (left) and as adults (right). What is the name of the phenomenon it illustrates?
What evidence does the phenomenon give about evolution?
Solution
1.
a.Aminoacids : The 20 aminoacids are same in all cellular orgainsms.
b.Forelimbs
c.Stream lined body of sharks and whales, wings of birds and insects.
d.The gulono--lactone oxidase (GLO) pseudogene.
e.Coccyx is present in humans and great apes as fused bone but is not present in monkeys as they
have tails.
2.Ambiguity of species boundaries means there is always a confusion as to which organisms can
be grouped into species; wheather sexually reproducing organisms and asexually reproducing
organisms.What boundaries should exist so as to group organisms into species has always been
ambiguous.No such species boundaries were set earlier.Darwin used it as a part of his argument
for common ancestor because according to him god had created the species and this was known
as Creationism and he emphasized on the process of natural selection to be an active process that
led to evolution from common ancestor.
3.The phenomenon that the diagram illustrates is homology.Homology in embryo is known as
ontogenetic homology and means that two or more species share same embryological similarities
and it gives an evidence that all the three embryos of species have a common ancestor but in
process of time have undergone remodelling of body parts through natural selection..
1-A) What types of data document patterns and processes of evoluti.pdfeyewatchsystems
1-
A) What types of data document patterns and processes of evolution?
B) What does homology mean and how is it important with respect to evolution? How types of
homology are for providing evidence of evolution?
C) does the fossil record provide support for the of evolution? Why do sugar gliders and flying
squirrels look so much alike?
D) What do we call the similarity between flying squirrels and sugar gliders?
E) Provide a complete explanation for the question, what is evolution Vocabulary
Solution
Answer A) There are mainly four types of data which document patterns and process of
evolution; Homology, fossil record, direct observations and biogeography.
Answer B) Homology means sharing a similar structure due to relatedness. this is important with
respect to evolution because homology tells us that two different animals which shares the
homology structures had a common ancestor during evolution. there are two types of homology
in evolution; paralogs, which tells us that two copy of one gene located at two different positions
on genome inside a single organism has evolved as a duplication event and such genes are called
paralogous. while orthologs tells us that if two genes are similar in two different organism\'s
genomes then they were originated in their ancestor.
Answer C) Yes, fossil record is one of the data documentation for the evolutionary studies and
they help to find the missing links between various points of evolution. sugar gliders and flying
squirrels look alike because they share similarity in structures such as white belly, big eyes, same
size, and a thin layer of skin under the legs for gliding in the air.
Answer D) We call this kind of similarity in same functional structures as analogy..
Exam 2 Study Guide. All questions will be over these concepts, voc.docxSANSKAR20
Exam 2 Study Guide. All questions will be over these concepts, vocabulary, and facts
Chp 10:
Cell Cycle
Genome
Mitosis
Chp11:
Meiosis
Gamete
Haploid & Diploid cell
Sexual reproduction
Chp12:
Gregor Mendel
Traits
Genotype & Phenotype
Allele
Dominant Trait & Recessive trait
Homozygous & Heterozygous
Punnet Square (concept. You will not do one on the exam)
Predictable Genetic frequencies (pedigree, farming genetic disorders)
Wild Type
Law of Segregation
Law of Independent assortment
Chp14:
DNA
Backbone
Nucleic Acid
Nucleotides
Base
Base Pair
Codon
Gene
Chromosome
DNA Polymerase (concept, vocab word)
Helicase (concept, vocab word)
Okazaki Fragment (concept, vocab word)
Proof Reading
Telomeres
DNA bases (4) and which bind
RNA: Uracil
Steps of DNA Replication (just listing the steps: min 5 max 10, depending on word choice)
Chp 15:
The Central Dogma of Biology
Transcription (steps, concepts)
Translation (steps, concepts)
tRNA
Mutation
Biotechnology
Chp 18:
Evolution
Natural Selection
Charles Darwin & Alfred R. Wallace
“Survival of the fittest” is incorrect.
Adaptation
Species
Hybrid (species): Postzygotic & Prezygotic
Speciation
Allopatric Speciation
Sympatric Speciation
Adaptive Radiation
Gradual Speciation & Punctuated Equilibrium
Chp 19:
Evolution
Evolution cumulative functions of: (know each)
Mutation, Genetic Drift, Migration, Natural Selection
Chance (involved with Evolution): Fixation, Founder Effect, Population Bottleneck
Natural Selection: 3 conditions for occurrence; what it looks like; what it does/does not do
Convergent Evolution
Evolution’s influence over, but not its “purpose”
Species are the basic unit of Biodiversity
Chp 20:
Phylogeny
Phylogenetic Trees/models
Concept of “shared ancestry”
Taxonomy: concept, define, & list 8 hierarchical categories
Convergent Evolution
Molecular Systematics & DNA Homology
Compare Phylogeny verse the “species concept”
Chp 21-29:
Biodiversity
Flora, Fauna, Biota
Virus (concept, importance to Evolution by Natural Selection)
Importance of “Domain”
Prokaryotes: Define, importance/role in Nature
Stromatolites as evidence
Biofilms
Protists: define, importance/role in Nature
Fungi: Define, importance/role in Nature
3 descriptors of Fungi
Fungal DNA
Hyphae & Mycelium
Decomposer
Mycorrhizae
Plants:
Ancestry (phylogeny)
Plants: Define, importance/role in nature
3 defining descriptors of Plants
Specific adaptations for evolution to land
3 problems all plants (as a phylogenetic group) face
Non-vascular Plant
Vascular Plant
Vascular Seed Plant
Vascular Tissue: Xylem & Phloem
Roots, True leaves
Waxy Cuticle
Important role of Ecological Succession of Plants to Life
Seed Plants:
Seed: define, role/importance of to a plant, water & reproduction
Spermatophytes
Gymnosperm
Angiosperm,
Flower & Fruit
Flower: Stamen, Carpel, Petal, Ovary)
Herbivory
Pollination & Pollinators: Trickery, Bribery, coevolution of
Importance of Plants to Humans
Humans and Plants coevolution
The life of a bee is very different f ...
A slide presentation which explains the facts about the theory of evolution and scientifically rebuts several of the most common criticisms and myths used by creationists and opponents of evolutionary theory.
Give definitions for comparative anatomy and embryology.Why do evo.pdfARORACOCKERY2111
Give definitions for comparative anatomy and embryology.
Why do evolutionary biologists seek data from multiple lines of evidence to support evolution as
a theory?
Solution
Ans.) Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of diverse
species. It has quite a long served as confirmation for development; it demonstrates that different
organisms share a typical progenitor. Likewise, it helps researchers to group the living organisms
with their comparative qualities on the basis of anatomical structures. A typical case of
comparative anatomy is the comparable bone structures in forelimbs of felines, whales, bats, and
human. These members comprise of similar essential parts; yet, they serve totally unique
capacities. The skeletal parts which shape a structure utilized for swimming, for example, a
balance, would not be perfect to frame a wing, which is more qualified for flight. One
clarification for the forelimbs\' comparative structure is plummet with alteration. Through
arbitrary transformations and characteristic choice, every life form\'s anatomical structures bit by
bit adjusted to suit their particular natural surroundings.
Embryology is the study that reviews the pre-birth advancement of embryo, gametes and
improvement of developing lives and babies. Also, embryology includes the analysis of genetic
characters also which took place before birth of the progeny; this phenomenon is known as
teratology.
Evolutionary biologists seek data from multiple lines of evidence because they need all the
support to prove their evolution theory. The research on comparative anatomy and embryology
of particular organism gives insight about their evolution; that how they evolved and forms a
different organism, Hence, multiple lines of evidence are required to support the new findings.
The new research is completely based on such kind of studies..
GraphRAG is All You need? LLM & Knowledge GraphGuy Korland
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https://arxiv.org/abs/2306.08302
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Sectoral targets and attacks as well as the cost of ransom
Global APT activity, AI usage, actor and tactic profiles, and implications
Rise in volumes of AI-powered cyberattacks
Major cyber events in 2024
Malware and malicious payload trends
Cyberattack types and targets
Vulnerability exploit attempts on CVEs
Attacks on counties – USA
Expansion of bot farms – how, where, and why
In-depth analysis of the cyber threat landscape across North America, South America, Europe, APAC, and the Middle East
Why are attacks on smart factories rising?
Cyber risk predictions
Axis of attacks – Europe
Systemic attacks in the Middle East
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2. anatomical homology: case for
pig n’ arms
A pigs forelimb consists of 3 large bones, the humerus,
radius, and ulna. Our arms contain the same bones.
This raises the question, why should the pig’s forelimb
and my arm have hte same skeletal pattern.
Darwin said these homologies (similarities) were best
explained by this theory of descent from a common
ancestor.
3. anatomical homology: case for
pig n’ arms
According to Darwin and modern evolutionary
biologists, homologies are present in organisms
because they inherited these structures from the
ancestor they had in common.
Humans and pigs both have similar bones in their
forelimbs because we are related and descended from
a common ancestor.
4. anatomical homology: case for
pig n’ arms
What actually gets passed from parent of offspring is
the genetic information, which guides the making of the
forelimb.
Say we have two animals, A and B, which have
homologous structures. The theory of Common
Descent says that they were built by homologous
genes.
Also, the process of growing from an embryo to an
adult (development pathway) are homologous, because
they descended from a common ancestor.
5. anatomical homology: case for
pig n’ arms
According to neo-Darwinism, Natural Selection
modifies genes over time. It also modifies the
embryological processes that produce anatomical
structures (like arms).
Because of these modifications, related organisms
have anatomical structures that are mostly similar, with
a few differences.
6. anatomical homology: case for
pig n’ arms
Common Descent advocates, say that homologous
anatomical structures originated in a common ancestor,
and then were modified by natural selection.
Also, they say that natural selection has modified the
shapes and sizes of bones, and even eliminated some
completely.
Even still, you can see the ancestral pattern in those
structures we recognize today as similar.
7. anatomical homology: case for
as smart as a pig?
It is not only in the skeletal system that homologies are
seen. Similarities can also been seen in soft tissue
structures like the brain and nervous system.
8. anatomical homology: case for
online resources
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/lines_04
9. anatomical homology: a reply
Harvard paleontologist Louis Agassiz, long before
Darwin’s time, knew about the existence of
homologous structures.
He explained homologous structures as necessary
because similar structures can solve similar functional
problems.
Cars and airplanes both have wheels, because they
both have to move easily over horizontal surfaces. But
this does not mean that airplanes evolved from cars.
10. anatomical homology: a reply
RDK Thomas and WE Reif have developed an idea
they call “the skeleton space”.
What they mean by this, is that there are only a limited
number of ways that geometric shapes and growing
materials (like bones) can go together and still work
well.
This claims there are a limited number of skeletal
patterns because of the functional requirements of
organisms.
11. anatomical homology: a reply
When 2 or more adult structures appear to by
homologous, neo-Darwinist would say that they would
have been built by homologous development (when the
embryo becomes an adult) pathways and homologous
genes.
Contrary to this, biologists are learning that
homologous structures can be produced by different
genes and may follow different development pathways.
12. anatomical homology: a reply
The wasp and fruit fly are an example of this. They both
have body segments that are homologous.
If they have the same body types because of a
common ancestor, then they should have homologous
genes and homologous development pathways.
Contrary to this, the development of the bodies of
some wasps is completely different than that of the fruit
flies and even other wasps.
13. anatomical homology: a reply
Another discovery that biologists have made, is that in
many cases, the same genes help to produce different
adult structures.
Mouse - single lens camera eye
14. anatomical homology: a reply
Another discovery that biologists have made, is that in
many cases, the same genes help to produce different
adult structures.
Mouse - single lens camera eye
15. anatomical homology: a reply
Another discovery that biologists have made, is that in
many cases, the same genes help to produce different
adult structures.
Fruit fly - compound eye (with dozens of lenses)
16. anatomical homology: a reply
Another discovery that biologists have made, is that in
many cases, the same genes help to produce different
adult structures.
Fruit fly - compound eye (with dozens of lenses)
17. anatomical homology: a reply
Another discovery that biologists have made, is that in
many cases, the same genes help to produce different
adult structures.
Squid - single lens camera eye
18. anatomical homology: a reply
Another discovery that biologists have made, is that in
many cases, the same genes help to produce different
adult structures.
Squid - single lens camera eye
19. anatomical homology: a reply
Each of these eyes develop along very different
pathways and are wired differently from each other, but
the same gene is involved in the development of all 3
eyes.
The Neo-darwinism theory would say that non-
homologous structures should be determined by non-
homologous genes.
20. anatomical homology: a reply
Biologists were shocked to discover this - that non-
homologous structures (eyes) could be caused by
homologous genes.
Stephen Jay Gould called this discovery “unexpected
under usual views of evolution”
21. anatomical homology: a reply
Evolutionary biologists define homology as “similarity
due to common ancestry”.
Question: are there some similarities that are not due to
common ancestry?
Nearly all biologists would say, “Yes”.
22. anatomical homology: a reply
Flippers of a whale and
an ichthyosaur have
similar shapes, but the
whale is a mammal and
the ichthyosaur was a
reptile.
23. anatomical homology: a reply
Flippers of a whale and
an ichthyosaur have
similar shapes, but the
whale is a mammal and
the ichthyosaur was a
reptile.
24. anatomical homology: a reply
Another example is the forelimbs of a mole cricket and a
mole.
25. anatomical homology: a reply
Biologists will tell you that these structures are not the
result of common ancestors. And also that they arose
separately on independent lines of descent.
26. anatomical homology: a reply
resources
Evolution Exposed
by Roger Patterson
Speciation - page 57-67
Homology - page 68-72
Fossils (transitional) - page 73-74
Molecular Homology - page 74-75
Embryology - page 95-96
Refuting Evolution
by Jonathan Sarfati
The Politically Incorrect Guide to Darwinism and
Intelligent Design by Jonathan Wells