Alcohols can be named using either functional class or substitutive nomenclature. They are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of carbon atoms bonded to the hydroxyl carbon. Alcohols exhibit hydrogen bonding which affects their physical properties like higher boiling points and water solubility compared to similar hydrocarbons. Alcohols undergo nucleophilic substitution and acid-base reactions. Common reactions include halogenation, oxidation, esterification, and dehydration. Phenols undergo electrophilic aromatic substitution. Alcohols have many industrial uses as solvents, disinfectants, and in the production of plastics, drugs, and fragrances.
Aldehydes and ketones are organic compounds which incorporate a carbonyl functional group, C=O. The carbon atom of this group has two remaining bonds that may be occupied by hydrogen or alkyl or aryl substituents. If at least one of these substituents is hydrogen, the compound is an aldehyde.
Alkenes are a class of hydrocarbons (e.g, containing only carbon and hydrogen) unsaturated compounds with at least one carbon-to-carbon double bond. Another term used to describe alkenes is olefins. Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes due to the presence of the double bond.
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups. A compound containing a carbonyl group is often referred to as a carbonyl compound.
B.Pharm I Year II Sem. SN1 and SN2 reactions, kinetics, order of reactivity of alkyl halides, stereochemistry and rearrangement of carbocations.
SN1 versus SN2 reactions, Factors affecting SN1 and SN2 reactions.
Structure and uses of ethylchloride, Chloroform, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene,
dichloromethane, tetrachloromethane and iodoform.
Alcohols, Qualitative tests for Alcohol, Structure and uses of Ethyl alcohol, chlorobutanol, Cetosterylalcohol, Benzyl alcohol, Glycerol, Propylene glycol
Aldehydes and ketones are organic compounds which incorporate a carbonyl functional group, C=O. The carbon atom of this group has two remaining bonds that may be occupied by hydrogen or alkyl or aryl substituents. If at least one of these substituents is hydrogen, the compound is an aldehyde.
Alkenes are a class of hydrocarbons (e.g, containing only carbon and hydrogen) unsaturated compounds with at least one carbon-to-carbon double bond. Another term used to describe alkenes is olefins. Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes due to the presence of the double bond.
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups. A compound containing a carbonyl group is often referred to as a carbonyl compound.
B.Pharm I Year II Sem. SN1 and SN2 reactions, kinetics, order of reactivity of alkyl halides, stereochemistry and rearrangement of carbocations.
SN1 versus SN2 reactions, Factors affecting SN1 and SN2 reactions.
Structure and uses of ethylchloride, Chloroform, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene,
dichloromethane, tetrachloromethane and iodoform.
Alcohols, Qualitative tests for Alcohol, Structure and uses of Ethyl alcohol, chlorobutanol, Cetosterylalcohol, Benzyl alcohol, Glycerol, Propylene glycol
Important functional group of organic chemistry alcohol. introduction classification properties preparation and chemical reactions. Alcohols are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary, based upon the number of carbon atoms connected to the carbon atom that bears the hydroxyl group.
Classification of alcohols: Depending on the number of hydroxyl group present, they are classified into following types.
Monohydric alcohols: Alcohols having only one -OH group is present in the molecule are known monohydric alcohols. Example: Methyl alcohol, Ethyl alcohol etc.,
Dihydric alcohols: Alcohols having two hydroxyl groups in a molecule are known as dihydric alcohols or diols or glycols. Example: 1,2-ethandiol (Glycol).
Trihydric alcohols: Alcohols having three hydroxyl groups are called trihydric alcohols. Example: 1, 2, 3-propantriol (Glycerol).
Alcohols having only one -OH group is present in the molecule are known as monohydric alcohols. Monohydric alcohols are classified depending on the number of carbon atoms which are directly attached to the carbon which contain –OH group are primary (1º), secondary (2º) or tertiary (3º). Depending upon whether the number of alkyl groups bonded to the carbon atom bearing the hydroxyl group is one, two or three, respectively
In chemistry, alcohols are organic compounds that carry at least one hydroxyl functional group bound to their aliphatic substructure. The term alcohol originally referred to the primary alcohol ethanol, which is used as a drug and is the main alcohol present in alcoholic beverages.
2. Chemistry of Aliphatic Compounds: Introduction, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties and pharmaceutical applications of alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, hydrocarbons, ester, ethers, amines, amides and carboxylic acids.
The combination of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl on the same carbon atom is called a carboxyl group. Compounds containing the carboxyl group are called carboxylic acids. The carboxyl group is one of the most widely occurring functional groups in organic chemistry.
Aromatic Carboxylic acids: Carboxylic acids have an aryl group bound to the carboxyl group is known as aromatic carboxylic acids. The general formula of an aliphatic aromatic carboxylic acid is Ar-COOH.
Acidity of carboxylic acid:
A carboxylic acid may dissociate in water to give a proton and a carboxylate ion. Dissociation of a carboxylic acid involves breaking an O-H bond gives a carboxylate ion with the negative charge spread out equally over two oxygen atoms, compared with just one oxygen atom in an alkoxide ion. The delocalized charge makes the carboxylate ion more stable therefore; dissociation of a carboxylic acid to a carboxylate ion is less endothermic.
Preparation Methods:
1. Oxidation:
The oxidation of aldehyde with oxidizing agents such as CrO3 to forms carboxylic acids containing the same numbers of carbon atoms with a oxidizing agents like chromic acid, chromium trioxide. The silver oxide (Ag2O) in aqueous ammonia solution (Tollen’s reagent) is mild reagent give good yield at room temperature. E.g. Acetaldehyde reacts with CrO3 in aqueous acid to give acetic acid.
2. Grignard reagents (from CO2):
Carboxylic acid can be prepared by the reaction of Grignard reagent (alkyl magnesium halide) with carbon dioxide (CO2) in presence of dry ether. Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide to forms a magnesium carboxylates which on hydrolysis by dilute HCl produces carboxylic acids.
3. Hydrolysis of nitrile:
The hydrolysis of nitrile or cyanide in presence of dilute acid to forms a carboxylic acid. In this reaction –CN group is converted to a –COOH group.
4. Hydrolysis Reactions:
All the carboxylic acid derivatives can be hydrolyzed into the carboxylic acid in the acidic or basic media; the hydrolysis reaction is fast and occurs in presence of water with no acid or base catalyst.
1. From Ester (Hydrolysis of ester): Ester can be hydrolyzed in either acidic or basic medium to yield carboxylic acid. The ester is heated with an excess of water contains strong acid or base catalyst.
Properties of Carboxylic Acids:
1. Low molecular weights carboxylic acids are colourless liquid at room temperature i.e. lower member ate liquid up to C9 and have characteristic odors whereas higher members are solid.
2. Carboxylic acids are polar organic compound. Low molecular weight carboxylic acids (first four members) are soluble in water whereas solubility in water decrease as molecular weight and chain lengthing increases.
3. Aromatic acids are insoluble in water.
4. Carboxylic acids have higher melting and boiling point due to their capacity to readily form stable hydrogen-bonded dimers.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
2. IUPAC Nomenclature
There are several kinds of IUPAC nomenclature.
The two that are most widely used are:
functional class nomenclature
substitutive nomenclature
Both types can be applied to alcohols and
alkyl halides.
4. Nomenclature
• The longest C chain with the –OH group attached to it is
chosen as the parent group.
• The C atoms in the parent chain are numbered so that the
C atom attached with the –OH group is given the lowest
number possible.
• The position of –OH group is indicated by the number of
C atom to which it is attached.
• The substituents and their positions in the parent chain are
numbered from the C with the –OH group. The –OH group
is given higher priority compared alkyl/halogen
substituents in determining the direction of placements
5. Functional Class Nomenclature of Alcohols
Name the alkyl group and add "alcohol" as a
separate word.
CH3CH2OH CH3
CH3CCH2CH2CH3
CH3CHCH2CH2CH2CH3 OH
OH
6. Functional Class Nomenclature of Alcohols
Name the alkyl group and add "alcohol" as a
separate word.
CH3CH2OH CH3
Ethyl alcohol CH3CCH2CH2CH3
CH3CHCH2CH2CH2CH3 OH
OH 1,1-Dimethylbutyl
alcohol
1-Methylpentyl alcohol
7. Substitutive Nomenclature of Alcohols
Name as "alkanols." Replace -e ending of alkane
name by -ol.
Number chain in direction that gives lowest number
to the carbon that bears the —OH group.
CH3CH2OH CH3
CH3CCH2CH2CH3
CH3CHCH2CH2CH2CH3 OH
OH
8. Substitutive Nomenclature of Alcohols
Name as "alkanols." Replace -e ending of alkane
name by -ol.
Number chain in direction that gives lowest number
to the carbon that bears the —OH group.
CH3CH2OH CH3
Ethanol CH3CCH2CH2CH3
CH3CHCH2CH2CH2CH3 OH
OH 2-Methyl-2-pentanol
2-Hexanol
9. Substitutive Nomenclature of Alcohols
OH
Hydroxyl groups outrank
alkyl groups when
it comes to numbering
CH3 the chain.
Number the chain in the
CH3
direction that gives the
lowest number to the
carbon that bears the
OH OH group
12. Classification
Alcohols and alkyl halides are classified as
primary
secondary
tertiary
according to their "degree of substitution."
Degree of substitution is determined by counting
the number of carbon atoms directly attached to
the carbon that bears the halogen or hydroxyl group.
16. Boiling Points
Higher than other organic compounds with equivalent
relative molecular mass.
Formation of hydrogen bond between –OH groups
in alcohol molecule.
b.p increases as Mr of alcohol increase since the van
der Waals forces of attraction increases with
molecular size.
17. Boiling Points
b.p of branced chain alcohol is lower than straight
chain, with same Mr.
Small surface area, hence weaker van der Waals forces.
Stearic factor – lower b.p – alkyl, R hinder the formation
of H-bond.
3° alcohol < 2° alcohol < 1° alcohol
boiling point increases
18. Solubility in Water
Lower members of alcohols are soluble in water;
Formation of H bond between water & alcohol.
Solubility in water decreases significantly:
Size of alkyl group, R
R is non-polar
Bigger influence when number of C (hence size) increases.
Order of solubility in water;
3° alcohol < 2° alcohol < 1° alcohol
solubility increases
19. • Due to stearic factor as alkyl, -R groups hinder the
formation of H-bonds between the –OH groups and
water molecules.
• Polyhydric alcohols are more soluble in water than
monohydric alcohols.
• Triol > diol > monohydric alcohols
Solubility in water decreases
this is because the more –OH groups present in a molecule,
the more hydrogen bonds are formed with water.
21. Reactions
Divided into 2 groups:
Type 1: Cleavage of bond between O and
H in –OH and H replaced by other groups.
Type 2: Cleavage of bond between C and
O in –OH is replaced by other groups
through nucleophilic substitution.
22. Type 1 Reactions
• Hydroxy react as acid.
• Occurs for both aliphatic and aromatic
alcohols
• Example reactions:
– Formation of alkoxides & phenoxides
– Formation of ester
– Oxidation of alcohol → carbonyl → carboxylic
acid
• Depends on class of alcohol
23. Type 2 Reactions
• Hydroxy react as base.
• Occurs in aliphatic alcohols only.
• Example reactions:
– Rxn with hydrogen halides, phosphorus halide /
thionyl chloride.
– Dehydration → alkene / ethers.
24. T1:Formation of alkoxides &
Phenoxides
• Alcohol & Phenol react with
electropositive metals (Na/K) to form
salt known as alkoxides/phenoxides &
H2 gas.
25. Application
• Qualitative test for the presence of –OH
group.
– H2 gas released when Na?K react with
compound X. X could be alcohol/carboxylic acid
• Quantitative test for the number of –OH
groups.
• To generate H2 gas that is newly formed to
carry out reduction reactions.
27. T1: Oxidation
• Alcohol can be oxidised to form carbonyl compound and
carboxylic acid – depend on class of alcohol.
• Involves removing 2 H atoms.
• Hot acidified potassium dichromate (VI) / potassium
manganate (VII) used.
• 1° alcohol → aldehyde → carboxylic acid.
• 2° alcohol → ketone: stable toward oxidizing agent.
• 3° alcohol → resistance toward oxidation.
28. T2: Rxn with PX5/PX3/SOX2/HX
• Involve fission of C-O bond in the hydroxy compound
and the –OH group is replaced by halogen in
nucleophilic substitution.
• Application:
– Conversion of alcohol → haloalkane
• To convert –OH to –X in the preparation of RX from ROH.
– Qualitative test for the presence of –OH group.
• White fumes of HCl liberated when solid PCl5 added to compound Y,
then –OH is present in comp Y.Y maybe aliphatic hydrocyl, ROH or
carboxylic acid, RCOOH.
– Quantitative test to determine number of –OH group.
• 1 mol of –OH group liberates 1 mol of hydrogen chloride gas.
29. • Application cont.:
– In the rxn of thionyl chloride (sulfur dichloride oxide), SOCl 2
with alcohol, the chloroalkane produce can be easily isolated
as the liquid as the rest of the by-products (SO2 & HCl) are
gases.
– Alcohol react withconc. HCl / HBr to produce haloalkane.
• Lucas Reagent: mixt of conc. HCl & ZnCl2
• Distinguish class of alcohol, rate of reaction is different.
– 1° alcohol: react very slowly, no cloudiness at room temperature.
– 2° alcohol: react in 1-5min (solution turn cloudy after 5 min).
– 3° alcohol: react almost instantaneously (immediate cloudiness)
30. T2: Dehydration rxn
• Two types of dehydration producing diff. product at diff.
condition.
– Intramolecular elimination of water.
– Intermolecular elimination of water.
• Intramolecular elimination of water from hydroxyl group &
alpha H produce alkene.
– α-H: H attached to C adjacent to –OH group.
– By refluxing the alcohol with excess conc. H2SO4 / H3PO4 at temp.
of 170-180°C / heated with alumina.
• Intermolecular elimination of water from two alcohol
molecules to produce ether.
– Conc. H2SO4 and excess alcohol refluxed at temp. of 140°C.
31. Formation of Haloform
• All alcohol with structure of RCH(OH)CH3, where R is
H/alkyl/aryl group, will produce haloform when heated with
halogen & aqueous alkali.
• Haloforms: iodoform, CHI3 / chloroform, CHCl3
• Iodoform test: iodomethane formed: yellow precipitate.
– Used to identify a methyl group, -CH3 adjacent to the carbonyl group or hydroxyl
group in ethanol (1° alcohol) / 2° alcohol.
33. • Since –OH group in ortho- and para- directing, phenol
undergo electrophilic substitution reactions in the 2-(ortho)
and 4-(para) positions of benzene ring under mild
conditions.
• The electrophilic substitutions ofphenol include:
– Halogenation with chlorine / bromine water.
– Nitration with conc. Nitric acid
– Friedel-Crafts alkylation & acylation.