Ethyl ethanoate is an ester with a boiling point of 77.1°C. Esters have lower boiling points than carboxylic acids with the same number of carbon atoms due to their inability to form hydrogen bonds. Esters are soluble in water, with solubility decreasing with increasing chain length. The hydrolysis of esters can occur through acid or base mechanisms, involving nucleophilic attack of the hydroxide or hydronium ion on the carbonyl carbon and the formation of an intermediate. Ethyl ethanoate is used as a solvent and in artificial flavors, glues, and cigarette production.
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups. A compound containing a carbonyl group is often referred to as a carbonyl compound.
Preparation, reactions, Acidity, effect of substituents on acidity, structure and uses of carboxylic acid and identification tests for carboxylic acid, amide and ester
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups. A compound containing a carbonyl group is often referred to as a carbonyl compound.
Preparation, reactions, Acidity, effect of substituents on acidity, structure and uses of carboxylic acid and identification tests for carboxylic acid, amide and ester
Aldehydes and ketones are organic compounds which incorporate a carbonyl functional group, C=O. The carbon atom of this group has two remaining bonds that may be occupied by hydrogen or alkyl or aryl substituents. If at least one of these substituents is hydrogen, the compound is an aldehyde.
Aldehydes and ketones are the carbonyl compounds with general formula CnH2nO. Aldehydes have at least one hydrogen atom bonded to the carbonyl group and other group is either hydrogen or an alkyl or aryl group (i.e. Aldehyde has one alkyl or aryl group and one of the hydrogen bonded to the carbonyl carbon) with characteristics functional group -CHO.
Preparation and reaction of aldehyde and ketone, electromeric effect, aldol condensation, cannizarro reaction, perkin condensation, benzoin condensation, nucleophilic addition reaction and uses of aldehyde and ketone
B.Pharm I Year II Sem. SN1 and SN2 reactions, kinetics, order of reactivity of alkyl halides, stereochemistry and rearrangement of carbocations.
SN1 versus SN2 reactions, Factors affecting SN1 and SN2 reactions.
Structure and uses of ethylchloride, Chloroform, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene,
dichloromethane, tetrachloromethane and iodoform.
Alcohols, Qualitative tests for Alcohol, Structure and uses of Ethyl alcohol, chlorobutanol, Cetosterylalcohol, Benzyl alcohol, Glycerol, Propylene glycol
Aldehydes and ketones are organic compounds which incorporate a carbonyl functional group, C=O. The carbon atom of this group has two remaining bonds that may be occupied by hydrogen or alkyl or aryl substituents. If at least one of these substituents is hydrogen, the compound is an aldehyde.
Aldehydes and ketones are the carbonyl compounds with general formula CnH2nO. Aldehydes have at least one hydrogen atom bonded to the carbonyl group and other group is either hydrogen or an alkyl or aryl group (i.e. Aldehyde has one alkyl or aryl group and one of the hydrogen bonded to the carbonyl carbon) with characteristics functional group -CHO.
Preparation and reaction of aldehyde and ketone, electromeric effect, aldol condensation, cannizarro reaction, perkin condensation, benzoin condensation, nucleophilic addition reaction and uses of aldehyde and ketone
B.Pharm I Year II Sem. SN1 and SN2 reactions, kinetics, order of reactivity of alkyl halides, stereochemistry and rearrangement of carbocations.
SN1 versus SN2 reactions, Factors affecting SN1 and SN2 reactions.
Structure and uses of ethylchloride, Chloroform, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene,
dichloromethane, tetrachloromethane and iodoform.
Alcohols, Qualitative tests for Alcohol, Structure and uses of Ethyl alcohol, chlorobutanol, Cetosterylalcohol, Benzyl alcohol, Glycerol, Propylene glycol
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
HH
HH
HH
HH
H
H
H
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
H
H
H
HH
HH
HH
CH
HH
CH
H
H
H
H H H HH C H
HH
C C
C
CC
C C
H
H
C
H
H
H
H
H HH
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
octane - unbranched (straight-chain)
4-ethyl-2-methyloctane - branched
ethylcyclohexane - cyclic
Figure 1 - Unbranched, branched, and
cyclic hydrocarbons.
Experiment #3 - Hydrocarbons
Introduction
Organic chemistry is the chemistry of the
compounds of carbon. Currently over twenty
million compounds have been reported in the
chemical literature; about 90% of them are
organic, ie they contain carbon. The remaining
compounds are called inorganic and are formed
from the other elements, of which there are
about 100. That carbon so dominates
compound formation is a result of the fact that it
is almost unique in its ability to form long
chains with other carbon atoms. [Carbon’s
neighbor in the periodic table, silicon, can do
this but rarely does.] These chains with one
carbon joined to a second and the second
joined to a third, etc., can be branched, ie,
chains of carbon atoms can be attached to
carbons in the original chain. It is also possible
for one carbon in a chain to become bonded to
another carbon in that chain, resulting in a
closed ring of atoms. We call these compounds
cyclic.
Since there are so many organic
compounds it is fortunate that we can organize
them into various groups that have some
similarity to each other. For example, one large
group of organic compounds is known as the
hydrocarbons because members of this group
contain only carbon and hydrogen and no other
elements. Figure 1 shows examples of branched, unbranched and cyclic hydrocarbons.
It is possible to subdivide the hydrocarbon group of compounds based on the
bonding between the carbons. If all the carbon-carbon bonds are single, the compound
is an alkane. If at least one of the carbon-carbon bonds in the compound is a double
bond, and the remaining carbon-carbon bonds are single, the compound is an alkene. If
at least one of the carbon-carbon bonds in the compound is a triple bond, and the
remaining carbon-carbon bonds are single, the compound is an alkyne. If the compound
contains a six carbon ring that has alternating double and single bonds around the ring
(three double and three single), we say that ring, and the compound, is aromatic. An
aromatic ring looks like an alkene with three double bonds because that’s the way we
draw it using Lewis structures. However, the actual bonding in such a ring is
considerably different from that in alkenes and, consequently, many of the chemical
properties are different also. Therefore, we place these compounds in a separate family.
By the way, the term aromatic as used here has nothing to do with fragrance.
Experiment #3 Hydrocarbons Page 2
Hydrocarbons may be saturated or unsaturated. A saturated hydrocarbon is one
that is maxed out in terms of the number of hydrogens that can be present given the
nu ...
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
11. Physical properties
Simple esters
I am thinking here about things like ethyl
ethanoate.
Boiling points
The small esters have boiling points which are
similar to those of aldehydes and ketones with
the same number of carbon atoms.
Like aldehydes and ketones, they are polar
molecules and so have dipole-dipole interactions
as well as vander Waals dispersion forces.
However, they don't form hydrogen bonds, and
so their boiling points aren't anything like as
high as an acid with the same number of carbon
atoms
12. For example:
molecule type boiling point (°C)
CH3COOCH2CH3 ester 77.1
CH3CH2CH2COOH carboxylic acid 164
Solubility in water
The small esters are fairly soluble in water but solubility falls
with chain length.
FOR-EXAMPLE:
ester formula
solubility (g per 100 g of
water)
ethyl methanoate HCOOCH2CH3 10.5
ethyl ethanoate CH3COOCH2CH3 8.7
ethyl propanoate CH3CH2COOCH2CH3 1.7
13. Some other Properties of Ester:
Esters are neutral(do not change color of litmus,
phenolphthalein, methyl orange or any other acid-
base indicator) compounds
Esters are colorless and exist in liquid state at
room temperature
Esters are polar due to the presence of carbonyl
(=C=O)group and act as hydrogen bond acceptors
not as donors.
Esters are volatile in nature and have low boiling
and melting points.
14.
15.
16. MECHANISM OF THE BASE
HYDROLYSIS OF ESTERS
Step 1:
The hydroxide Nucleophilic
attacks at the electrophilic C of
the ester C=O, breaking the p
bond and creating the
tetrahedral intermediate.
Step 2:
The intermediate collapses,
reforming the C=O
results in the loss of the leaving
group the alkoxide, leading to
the carboxylic acid.
Step 3:
An acid / base reaction. A very
rapid equilibrium where the
alkoxide functions as a base
deprotonating the carboxylic
acid (an acidic work up would
allow the carboxylic acid to be
obtained from the reaction).
17. ACID –HYDROLYSIS OF AN ESTER:
FIRST STEP:
The actual catalyst in this case is the hydroxonium ion, H3O+, present in all
solutions of acids in water. In the first step, the ester takes a proton (a hydrogen
ion) from the hydroxonium ion. The proton becomes attached to one of the lone
pairs on the oxygen which is double-bonded to the carbon.
18. SECOND STEP:
The positive charge on the carbon atom is
attacked by one of the lone pairs on the oxygen of
a water molecule.
19. THIRD STEP:
What happens next is that a proton (a hydrogen ion) gets
transferred from the bottom oxygen atom to one of the
others. It gets picked off by one of the other substances in
the mixture (for example, by attaching to a lone pair on a
water molecule), and then dumped back onto one of the
oxygens more or less at random. Eventually, by chance, it
will join to the oxygen with the ethyl group attached. When
that happens, the net effect is:
20.
21. The structure for the latest ion is just like the one we discussed at
length back in step 1. The positive charge is actually delocalized all
over that end of the ion. The real structure will be a hybrid of these:
FIFTH STEP
The hydrogen is removed from the oxygen by reaction with a water
molecule.
28. USES :
In Glues
In Nail polish Removers
In decaffeinating tea and coffee
In cigarettes.
As a solvents in industry, notably for
lacquers and resins
Artificial fruit flavor
In organic synthesis.
In organic synthesis e.g., for making
ethyl acetoacetate.