This document provides an overview of operational amplifiers and their applications. It begins by outlining the chapter goals, which are to understand the characteristics of ideal op amps and non-ideal behavior, demonstrate circuit analysis techniques for common op amp circuits, and learn about factors in op amp circuit design. It then discusses the differential amplifier model, ideal op amp assumptions, and configurations for inverting, non-inverting, summing, and difference amplifiers. It also addresses concepts like finite gain, gain error, output limits, and common mode rejection ratio. Worked examples are provided to illustrate analyzing various op amp circuits.
This document discusses different classes of power amplifiers, including:
- Class A power amplifiers, which operate linearly for 360 degrees and have an efficiency of around 25%.
- Class B and AB push-pull amplifiers, which operate for more than 180 degrees but less than 360 degrees, and can have an efficiency near 79%.
- Class C power amplifiers, which operate for less than 180 degrees but can have an efficiency near 100%, making them useful for applications like RF and oscillators.
Operational amplifiers, or op amps, are devices that amplify input voltages or currents to produce larger output signals. They have very high gain and are used to build analog circuits. The four main types are voltage amplifiers, current amplifiers, transconductance amplifiers, and transresistance amplifiers. Voltage amplifiers, also called voltage controlled voltage sources (VCVS), can be configured non-inverting or inverting. In a non-inverting configuration, the output voltage is equal to the input voltage plus the input voltage multiplied by the feedback resistance. In an inverting configuration, the output voltage is equal to the negative input voltage multiplied by the feedback resistance divided by the input resistance.
Understand the “magic” of negative feedback and the characteristics of ideal op amps.
Understand the conditions for non-ideal op amp behavior so they can be avoided in circuit design.
Demonstrate circuit analysis techniques for ideal op amps.
Characterize inverting, non-inverting, summing and instrumentation amplifiers, voltage follower and first order filters.
Learn the factors involved in circuit design using op amps.
Find the gain characteristics of cascaded amplifiers.
Special Applications: The inverted ladder DAC and successive approximation ADC
This document contains information about operational amplifiers (op-amps). It discusses what an op-amp is, the internal components and typical pinout of an op-amp, the history and evolution of op-amp technology from vacuum tubes to integrated circuits, ideal op-amp characteristics and analysis, and various op-amp circuit applications including inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, filters, instrumentation amplifiers for EKG signals, strain gauges, piezoelectric transducers, and PID controllers. References are provided at the end from textbooks and Wikipedia.
The document discusses operational amplifiers (op-amps), including:
- An op-amp is a differential amplifier with very high gain used to amplify signals and perform mathematical operations. It has two inputs (inverting and non-inverting) and one output.
- An op-amp works by comparing the difference between its two input voltages and amplifying that difference by a very large amount, around 200,000 times.
- An op-amp has very high input impedance, low output impedance, and can provide either voltage or current gain depending on the configuration. It is used to build various circuits like filters, oscillators, and instruments.
This document discusses slew rate and its equation in operational amplifiers. It defines slew rate as the maximum rate of change of the output voltage of a circuit. The slew rate equation is provided as the derivative of the output voltage with respect to time. It also explains that slew rate limits the maximum input frequency and amplitude that can be applied to an amplifier without distorting the output. The document provides background on operational amplifiers and describes how their internal stages contribute to slew rate.
This document presents an overview of operational amplifiers (op-amps). It begins with an introduction to op-amps, followed by their circuit symbol, pin diagram, important terms and equations. It describes the ideal properties of an op-amp, as well as non-ideal behaviors. Applications discussed include analog to digital converters, current sources, and zero crossing detectors. Advantages are listed as versatility and uses in various circuits. Disadvantages include limitations in power and load resistance.
This document discusses different classes of power amplifiers, including:
- Class A power amplifiers, which operate linearly for 360 degrees and have an efficiency of around 25%.
- Class B and AB push-pull amplifiers, which operate for more than 180 degrees but less than 360 degrees, and can have an efficiency near 79%.
- Class C power amplifiers, which operate for less than 180 degrees but can have an efficiency near 100%, making them useful for applications like RF and oscillators.
Operational amplifiers, or op amps, are devices that amplify input voltages or currents to produce larger output signals. They have very high gain and are used to build analog circuits. The four main types are voltage amplifiers, current amplifiers, transconductance amplifiers, and transresistance amplifiers. Voltage amplifiers, also called voltage controlled voltage sources (VCVS), can be configured non-inverting or inverting. In a non-inverting configuration, the output voltage is equal to the input voltage plus the input voltage multiplied by the feedback resistance. In an inverting configuration, the output voltage is equal to the negative input voltage multiplied by the feedback resistance divided by the input resistance.
Understand the “magic” of negative feedback and the characteristics of ideal op amps.
Understand the conditions for non-ideal op amp behavior so they can be avoided in circuit design.
Demonstrate circuit analysis techniques for ideal op amps.
Characterize inverting, non-inverting, summing and instrumentation amplifiers, voltage follower and first order filters.
Learn the factors involved in circuit design using op amps.
Find the gain characteristics of cascaded amplifiers.
Special Applications: The inverted ladder DAC and successive approximation ADC
This document contains information about operational amplifiers (op-amps). It discusses what an op-amp is, the internal components and typical pinout of an op-amp, the history and evolution of op-amp technology from vacuum tubes to integrated circuits, ideal op-amp characteristics and analysis, and various op-amp circuit applications including inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, filters, instrumentation amplifiers for EKG signals, strain gauges, piezoelectric transducers, and PID controllers. References are provided at the end from textbooks and Wikipedia.
The document discusses operational amplifiers (op-amps), including:
- An op-amp is a differential amplifier with very high gain used to amplify signals and perform mathematical operations. It has two inputs (inverting and non-inverting) and one output.
- An op-amp works by comparing the difference between its two input voltages and amplifying that difference by a very large amount, around 200,000 times.
- An op-amp has very high input impedance, low output impedance, and can provide either voltage or current gain depending on the configuration. It is used to build various circuits like filters, oscillators, and instruments.
This document discusses slew rate and its equation in operational amplifiers. It defines slew rate as the maximum rate of change of the output voltage of a circuit. The slew rate equation is provided as the derivative of the output voltage with respect to time. It also explains that slew rate limits the maximum input frequency and amplitude that can be applied to an amplifier without distorting the output. The document provides background on operational amplifiers and describes how their internal stages contribute to slew rate.
This document presents an overview of operational amplifiers (op-amps). It begins with an introduction to op-amps, followed by their circuit symbol, pin diagram, important terms and equations. It describes the ideal properties of an op-amp, as well as non-ideal behaviors. Applications discussed include analog to digital converters, current sources, and zero crossing detectors. Advantages are listed as versatility and uses in various circuits. Disadvantages include limitations in power and load resistance.
This document discusses building a voltage amplifier circuit with a transistor. It explains that a voltage amplifier increases a small input voltage to a higher output voltage. The circuit uses common electronic components like an NPN transistor, resistors, and capacitors. It operates by biasing the transistor to allow a small voltage change at the base to produce a larger change at the collector. The document provides the specific components needed and discusses how to select their values to achieve the desired gain without distortion.
This document provides an overview of operational amplifiers (op-amps). It discusses ideal op-amps, basic op-amp circuits like inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, other useful circuits, characteristics of real op-amps, selecting component values, and effects of feedback. Key points are that op-amps are widely used building blocks, ideal op-amps have infinite gain and resistance values, feedback allows trading off gain for bandwidth and altering circuit characteristics.
This document describes operational amplifiers and their use in various circuit configurations. It defines the key properties of an ideal operational amplifier as having infinite gain, infinite input impedance, and zero output impedance. Circuits diagrams are provided for inverting and non-inverting amplifiers. Expressions are derived for the gain of inverting and non-inverting amplifiers. Additional sections describe using an op-amp as a comparator, Schmitt trigger, and solving problems involving various op-amp circuits.
This document provides an overview of operational amplifiers (Op-Amps). It describes some key characteristics of Op-Amps including that they are differential amplifiers that amplify small differences between input voltages, have very high open-loop gain, and can be used as comparators. The document also discusses ideal vs typical Op-Amp parameters, examples of common Op-Amp applications like inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, filters, and mathematical operations, and provides circuit diagrams for some of these applications.
An operational amplifier (op-amp) is an electronic device that amplifies the difference between two input voltages. It has high input impedance, low output impedance, and a very high open-loop gain. Op-amps are used in inverting and non-inverting amplifier circuits to amplify signals. They are widely used in signal processing and control systems due to their versatility and compact design, replacing many discrete electronic components. Key characteristics of op-amps include high input resistance, low output resistance, and open-loop gain over 10.
This document contains information about a laboratory manual for a Linear Integrated Circuits lab class, including the syllabus, list of required equipment, and plans for experiments to be completed over 15 weeks. The experiments include designing inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, differentiators, integrators, and active filters using operational amplifiers. Circuit diagrams and procedures are provided for building the circuits and measuring input/output waveforms on an oscilloscope.
Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are high-gain amplifiers used as building blocks in analog electronic design. Key characteristics of op-amps include high input impedance, low output impedance, and very high voltage gain. Op-amps are often used in negative feedback configurations which allow the closed-loop gain to be determined by external resistors independently of the op-amp's open-loop gain. Common op-amp configurations include inverting, non-inverting, difference amplifier, integrator, and differentiator circuits.
An operational amplifier (op-amp) is an electronic device that amplifies the difference between two input voltages. It has very high gain, very high input impedance, and very low output impedance. Op-amps can perform mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, integration, and differentiation. Key characteristics of an ideal op-amp include infinite input impedance, zero output impedance, infinite voltage gain, and zero offset voltage. Practical op-amps have finite characteristics. Op-amps can be configured as inverting or non-inverting amplifiers to produce output signals that are inverted or non-inverted versions of the input. Common op-amp applications include adders, subtractors, and active filters.
Presentation on Op-amp by Sourabh kumarSourabh Kumar
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Presentation on Op-amp(Operational Amplifier) by Sourabh kumar. B.tech Presentation,
The document discusses buffer amplifiers and operational amplifiers. It defines a buffer as a device that provides an output that is identical to its input. An operational amplifier configured as a voltage follower acts as a buffer amplifier, with a gain of exactly 1. This allows the buffer to provide electrical isolation while maintaining the signal voltage level. Real op-amps can achieve gains very close to 1, making them suitable for use as buffer amplifiers. Applications of buffer amplifiers include driving resistive loads and use in sensor and data acquisition systems.
The document describes operational amplifiers and various op-amp circuits. It provides 14 examples with circuits and explanations of how the op-amps would function in each case. The key points covered are:
1) An op-amp circuit with feedback can act as a comparator and produce a square wave output from a sine wave input.
2) An op-amp with a known offset voltage can produce an output voltage equal to the input multiplied by the gain, within the saturation range.
3) An op-amp circuit with positive feedback acts as a Schmitt trigger, switching the output between saturation voltage levels.
4) Different op-amp circuits like differentiators, integrators and inverting/non-in
The document discusses operational amplifiers (op amps). It defines key terms like voltage gain and examines the ideal behavior of op amps in comparator and inverter circuits. Real op amps differ from ideal ones in having high but finite voltage gain and small but nonzero input/output resistances. Various op amp applications are also outlined.
The document discusses operational amplifiers (op amps). It defines key terms like voltage gain and describes how an ideal op amp behaves by forcing its two input terminals to have the same voltage. Real op amps are limited by supply voltages. Example circuits like voltage comparators and inverting amplifiers are analyzed. Gains are defined and the effects of a real op amp having finite input and output resistances are explained.
The document summarizes the design and analysis of the uA741 operational amplifier, which was one of the most popular op-amps ever made. It describes the op-amp's stages including input, gain, and output stages. It also analyzes the op-amp's DC bias point, small signal behavior through frequency and transient analysis, and how it performs under variations through Monte Carlo analysis. The document shows that the uA741 design is robust to changes in components and operates as intended across a wide range of conditions.
The document provides information on different configurations of operational amplifier (op-amp) circuits, including inverting amplifiers, non-inverting amplifiers, voltage followers, summing amplifiers, differential amplifiers, integrators, and differentiators. It explains how each circuit is constructed and its key characteristics, such as whether it inverts or non-inverts the input signal, and how the gain is determined based on feedback resistors. The document also provides equations for calculating the gain of each circuit configuration.
Operational amplifier: inverting and non-inverting amplifier, Power bandwidth, slew rate: slew rate distortion, noise gain, band width product. cascade amplifiers- bandwidth, CMRR, PSRR, Open loop op amp characteristics.
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The operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a basic building block of analog electronic circuits that amplifies the difference between its input terminals. It has very high gain, typically around 100,000, and its output depends on the difference between the voltages at its two input terminals. By using negative feedback, most of the open-loop gain is canceled out, making the op-amp useful for various applications like non-inverting and inverting amplifiers, adders, integrators, and differentiators. An ideal op-amp has infinite gain, bandwidth, and input impedance and zero output impedance. Practical op-amps have limitations compared to the ideal but can still perform signal amplification and processing functions.
The document discusses operational amplifiers and their applications. It describes the basic op-amp configuration, ideal op-amp model, and applications such as inverting amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, summing amplifier, differential amplifier, integrator, differentiator, and voltage follower. It also discusses offset adjustments and multiple op-amp circuits.
Power amplifiers are classified based on their operating point or quiescent point (Q point). Class A amplifiers have their Q point at the center of the load line, resulting in linear but low efficiency operation. Class B amplifiers operate with their Q point at cutoff, providing high efficiency but distorted output. Class AB reduces distortion by adding some forward bias. Class D amplifiers switch between cutoff and saturation at a high frequency for very high efficiency operation suitable for audio.
Ideal OP
AMP characteristics, DC characteristics, AC
characteristics, differential amplifier; frequency response of
OP AMP; Basic applications of op amp Inverting and Non
inverting Amplifiers, summer, differentiator and integrator
V/I & I/V converters.
The document discusses operational amplifiers (op-amps) and their use in integrator and differentiator circuits. It defines an op-amp as an integrated circuit that amplifies input signals through high gain. An integrator circuit uses an op-amp with a capacitor in feedback, resulting in an output voltage that is inversely proportional to time. A differentiator circuit contains a capacitor in the signal path, producing an output equal to the derivative of the input voltage. Practical implementations of these circuits are also described, along with their applications in areas like analog computing and signal processing.
The document describes the operation of ideal and real operational amplifiers (op amps). It defines key terms like voltage gain and examines how op amps work in comparator and inverter circuits. Op amps are used in audio amplification, biomedical devices, and analog computers. Real op amps have finite input resistance and output resistance, limiting the output voltage range, whereas ideal op amps can produce any output voltage to ensure the input voltages are equal.
This document discusses building a voltage amplifier circuit with a transistor. It explains that a voltage amplifier increases a small input voltage to a higher output voltage. The circuit uses common electronic components like an NPN transistor, resistors, and capacitors. It operates by biasing the transistor to allow a small voltage change at the base to produce a larger change at the collector. The document provides the specific components needed and discusses how to select their values to achieve the desired gain without distortion.
This document provides an overview of operational amplifiers (op-amps). It discusses ideal op-amps, basic op-amp circuits like inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, other useful circuits, characteristics of real op-amps, selecting component values, and effects of feedback. Key points are that op-amps are widely used building blocks, ideal op-amps have infinite gain and resistance values, feedback allows trading off gain for bandwidth and altering circuit characteristics.
This document describes operational amplifiers and their use in various circuit configurations. It defines the key properties of an ideal operational amplifier as having infinite gain, infinite input impedance, and zero output impedance. Circuits diagrams are provided for inverting and non-inverting amplifiers. Expressions are derived for the gain of inverting and non-inverting amplifiers. Additional sections describe using an op-amp as a comparator, Schmitt trigger, and solving problems involving various op-amp circuits.
This document provides an overview of operational amplifiers (Op-Amps). It describes some key characteristics of Op-Amps including that they are differential amplifiers that amplify small differences between input voltages, have very high open-loop gain, and can be used as comparators. The document also discusses ideal vs typical Op-Amp parameters, examples of common Op-Amp applications like inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, filters, and mathematical operations, and provides circuit diagrams for some of these applications.
An operational amplifier (op-amp) is an electronic device that amplifies the difference between two input voltages. It has high input impedance, low output impedance, and a very high open-loop gain. Op-amps are used in inverting and non-inverting amplifier circuits to amplify signals. They are widely used in signal processing and control systems due to their versatility and compact design, replacing many discrete electronic components. Key characteristics of op-amps include high input resistance, low output resistance, and open-loop gain over 10.
This document contains information about a laboratory manual for a Linear Integrated Circuits lab class, including the syllabus, list of required equipment, and plans for experiments to be completed over 15 weeks. The experiments include designing inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, differentiators, integrators, and active filters using operational amplifiers. Circuit diagrams and procedures are provided for building the circuits and measuring input/output waveforms on an oscilloscope.
Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are high-gain amplifiers used as building blocks in analog electronic design. Key characteristics of op-amps include high input impedance, low output impedance, and very high voltage gain. Op-amps are often used in negative feedback configurations which allow the closed-loop gain to be determined by external resistors independently of the op-amp's open-loop gain. Common op-amp configurations include inverting, non-inverting, difference amplifier, integrator, and differentiator circuits.
An operational amplifier (op-amp) is an electronic device that amplifies the difference between two input voltages. It has very high gain, very high input impedance, and very low output impedance. Op-amps can perform mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, integration, and differentiation. Key characteristics of an ideal op-amp include infinite input impedance, zero output impedance, infinite voltage gain, and zero offset voltage. Practical op-amps have finite characteristics. Op-amps can be configured as inverting or non-inverting amplifiers to produce output signals that are inverted or non-inverted versions of the input. Common op-amp applications include adders, subtractors, and active filters.
Presentation on Op-amp by Sourabh kumarSourabh Kumar
Visit Andro Root ( http:\\www.androroot.com ) for Tech. news and Smartphones.
Presentation on Op-amp(Operational Amplifier) by Sourabh kumar. B.tech Presentation,
The document discusses buffer amplifiers and operational amplifiers. It defines a buffer as a device that provides an output that is identical to its input. An operational amplifier configured as a voltage follower acts as a buffer amplifier, with a gain of exactly 1. This allows the buffer to provide electrical isolation while maintaining the signal voltage level. Real op-amps can achieve gains very close to 1, making them suitable for use as buffer amplifiers. Applications of buffer amplifiers include driving resistive loads and use in sensor and data acquisition systems.
The document describes operational amplifiers and various op-amp circuits. It provides 14 examples with circuits and explanations of how the op-amps would function in each case. The key points covered are:
1) An op-amp circuit with feedback can act as a comparator and produce a square wave output from a sine wave input.
2) An op-amp with a known offset voltage can produce an output voltage equal to the input multiplied by the gain, within the saturation range.
3) An op-amp circuit with positive feedback acts as a Schmitt trigger, switching the output between saturation voltage levels.
4) Different op-amp circuits like differentiators, integrators and inverting/non-in
The document discusses operational amplifiers (op amps). It defines key terms like voltage gain and examines the ideal behavior of op amps in comparator and inverter circuits. Real op amps differ from ideal ones in having high but finite voltage gain and small but nonzero input/output resistances. Various op amp applications are also outlined.
The document discusses operational amplifiers (op amps). It defines key terms like voltage gain and describes how an ideal op amp behaves by forcing its two input terminals to have the same voltage. Real op amps are limited by supply voltages. Example circuits like voltage comparators and inverting amplifiers are analyzed. Gains are defined and the effects of a real op amp having finite input and output resistances are explained.
The document summarizes the design and analysis of the uA741 operational amplifier, which was one of the most popular op-amps ever made. It describes the op-amp's stages including input, gain, and output stages. It also analyzes the op-amp's DC bias point, small signal behavior through frequency and transient analysis, and how it performs under variations through Monte Carlo analysis. The document shows that the uA741 design is robust to changes in components and operates as intended across a wide range of conditions.
The document provides information on different configurations of operational amplifier (op-amp) circuits, including inverting amplifiers, non-inverting amplifiers, voltage followers, summing amplifiers, differential amplifiers, integrators, and differentiators. It explains how each circuit is constructed and its key characteristics, such as whether it inverts or non-inverts the input signal, and how the gain is determined based on feedback resistors. The document also provides equations for calculating the gain of each circuit configuration.
Operational amplifier: inverting and non-inverting amplifier, Power bandwidth, slew rate: slew rate distortion, noise gain, band width product. cascade amplifiers- bandwidth, CMRR, PSRR, Open loop op amp characteristics.
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Please like, share, comment and follow.
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The operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a basic building block of analog electronic circuits that amplifies the difference between its input terminals. It has very high gain, typically around 100,000, and its output depends on the difference between the voltages at its two input terminals. By using negative feedback, most of the open-loop gain is canceled out, making the op-amp useful for various applications like non-inverting and inverting amplifiers, adders, integrators, and differentiators. An ideal op-amp has infinite gain, bandwidth, and input impedance and zero output impedance. Practical op-amps have limitations compared to the ideal but can still perform signal amplification and processing functions.
The document discusses operational amplifiers and their applications. It describes the basic op-amp configuration, ideal op-amp model, and applications such as inverting amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, summing amplifier, differential amplifier, integrator, differentiator, and voltage follower. It also discusses offset adjustments and multiple op-amp circuits.
Power amplifiers are classified based on their operating point or quiescent point (Q point). Class A amplifiers have their Q point at the center of the load line, resulting in linear but low efficiency operation. Class B amplifiers operate with their Q point at cutoff, providing high efficiency but distorted output. Class AB reduces distortion by adding some forward bias. Class D amplifiers switch between cutoff and saturation at a high frequency for very high efficiency operation suitable for audio.
Ideal OP
AMP characteristics, DC characteristics, AC
characteristics, differential amplifier; frequency response of
OP AMP; Basic applications of op amp Inverting and Non
inverting Amplifiers, summer, differentiator and integrator
V/I & I/V converters.
The document discusses operational amplifiers (op-amps) and their use in integrator and differentiator circuits. It defines an op-amp as an integrated circuit that amplifies input signals through high gain. An integrator circuit uses an op-amp with a capacitor in feedback, resulting in an output voltage that is inversely proportional to time. A differentiator circuit contains a capacitor in the signal path, producing an output equal to the derivative of the input voltage. Practical implementations of these circuits are also described, along with their applications in areas like analog computing and signal processing.
The document describes the operation of ideal and real operational amplifiers (op amps). It defines key terms like voltage gain and examines how op amps work in comparator and inverter circuits. Op amps are used in audio amplification, biomedical devices, and analog computers. Real op amps have finite input resistance and output resistance, limiting the output voltage range, whereas ideal op amps can produce any output voltage to ensure the input voltages are equal.
This document discusses dependent sources and operational amplifiers. It defines dependent sources as voltage or current sources whose value is controlled by another voltage or current in the circuit. Their value is the product of a constant gain and the controlling voltage or current. The document then discusses various op-amp configurations like inverting amplifiers, non-inverting amplifiers, summing amplifiers, and integrators. It explains how feedback is used to stabilize the op-amp and achieve a desired gain. The document also provides an overview of digital to analog converters and how they reconstruct analog waveforms from digital samples.
This document describes operational amplifiers (op amps) and their applications. It defines key parameters of ideal and real op amps like voltage gain, input resistance, and output resistance. Circuits like voltage comparators and inverting amplifiers are analyzed. The summary explains that an ideal op amp forces its input voltages to be equal while a real op amp output is limited between power supply voltages but still aims for zero difference between inputs. Common op amp applications include audio amplification, instrumentation, and analog computing.
This document describes operational amplifiers (op amps) and their ideal and real behavior. It defines key parameters like voltage and current gain. It explains how an ideal op amp behaves in comparator and inverting amplifier circuits by forcing its inputs to be equal. Real op amps are limited by finite gain, input/output resistance, and supply voltages. Common op amp applications are also listed.
The document discusses operational amplifiers (op-amps). It begins by introducing op-amps and their typical uses which include mathematical operations and providing voltage/amplitude changes. It then describes the internal construction of op-amps and their packaging. The basic op-amp pin configurations and symbol are shown. The document goes on to explain the different types of op-amp inputs and their operations, including single-ended, double-ended, and common mode. It also covers the basic ideal and non-ideal op-amp operations. Finally, it discusses various op-amp applications such as inverting/noninverting amplifiers, summing amplifiers, difference amplifiers, controlled sources, instrumentation amplifiers, and active filters including low-
Fundamentals of oprational Amplifiers.pptxadityaraj7711
A full stack web development course for beginners should provide a comprehensive overview of the key skills and knowledge necessary to create complete web applications, including both frontend and backend components. Here are some objectives that the course should aim to achieve:
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- Learn the basic concepts of web development, including client-server architecture and the internet's functioning.
- Gain familiarity with key technologies such as HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and HTTP.
2. **Frontend Development**:
- Learn the fundamentals of HTML and CSS for building web pages and styling them.
- Gain proficiency in JavaScript for adding interactivity and dynamic behavior to web pages.
- Introduction to popular frontend libraries and frameworks such as React, Angular, or Vue.js.
3. **Backend Development**:
- Learn how to create server-side applications using languages such as Python, Node.js, Ruby, or PHP.
- Understand the role of a server in handling requests, processing data, and sending responses to the client.
4. **Database Management**:
- Understand the concepts of databases and data modeling.
- Gain experience working with relational databases such as MySQL or PostgreSQL, and NoSQL databases such as MongoDB.
- Learn how to perform CRUD (Create, Read, Update, Delete) operations on databases.
5. **API Development**:
- Learn how to create RESTful APIs for communication between frontend and backend.
- Understand how to document and consume APIs.
6. **Authentication and Security**:
- Learn methods for handling user authentication and authorization.
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By the end of the course, students should be able to create, deploy, and maintain full stack web applications with a good understanding of the technologies and practices involved.
Full stack web development encompasses the creation of both front-end and back-end elements of a web application.
Front-end development deals with designing the user interface and experience for users.
This document discusses operational amplifiers (op-amps) and their applications in linear circuits. It begins by introducing op-amps, their ideal characteristics including very high gain and zero input current. It then explains how op-amps can be used to construct inverting amplifiers, non-inverting amplifiers, followers, and circuits for analog addition and subtraction through negative or positive feedback. Circuits are analyzed using the ideal op-amp model of infinite gain and input impedance. Simulation results are also presented verifying the circuit analysis.
The document discusses operational amplifiers and linear integrated circuits. It describes the ideal and practical characteristics of op-amps, including infinite input impedance, zero output impedance, and infinite gain in the ideal case. It also discusses various op-amp parameters such as common mode rejection ratio, input offset voltage, input bias current, and slew rate. The document then covers op-amp applications including difference amplifiers, integrators, differentiators, comparators, and timers. It provides examples of using the IC 555 in monostable and astable multivibrator circuits.
1) An instrumentation amplifier is used to condition signals from transducers by amplifying small signals and rejecting common mode noise. It consists of two stages - a high input impedance stage that sets the gain, and a differential amplifier stage.
2) Zero and span circuits are used to adjust transducer outputs to match the required input range of other devices. They use an inverting summer circuit configuration to apply gain and offset to the transducer signal.
3) Voltage to current converters are used to transmit signals over long distances as current signals are less affected by resistance in transmission wires than voltage. The simplest converter uses an op-amp non-inverter to directly convert voltage to a proportional current.
This document provides instructions for building and testing a differentiator circuit using an op amp. Key points:
- The circuit uses an LM356 op amp instead of the diagrammed uA741. Resistors and capacitors can be combined to achieve desired values.
- A series resistor and feedback capacitor are added to the ideal differentiator circuit to form high-pass and low-pass filters, stabilizing the circuit and reducing noise.
- As frequency increases, the capacitor acts less like an open circuit and more like a short circuit. This changes the circuit's behavior from a differentiator to an inverting amplifier to an integrator.
- Phase shift between input and output will vary from 90°
The document discusses operational amplifiers (OP-AMPs). It describes the ideal characteristics of an OP-AMP including infinite gain, infinite input resistance, and zero output resistance. It then discusses the practical OP-AMP IC 741, describing its specifications, pin configuration, and applications. Common OP-AMP configurations including the inverting amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, and concepts of virtual short and virtual ground are also covered.
The operational amplifier (op-amp) is an integrated circuit that can provide voltage gain and be used as a signal amplifier or comparator. It has high input resistance, virtually infinite voltage gain, and two inputs - inverting and non-inverting - and one output. Common op-amp configurations include the inverting amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, summing amplifier, and comparator. The op-amp is a versatile active component used in various circuit applications.
The document discusses operational amplifiers (op-amps). It begins by introducing op-amps and their history. It then defines an op-amp as a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier. It describes the ideal characteristics of an op-amp including infinite input impedance, zero output impedance, and very high open-loop gain. It also discusses the basic inverting and non-inverting op-amp configurations and how they provide signal inversion and non-inversion respectively. It concludes by explaining differential and common-mode operation of op-amps.
The document discusses operational amplifiers (op amps) and their characteristics and applications. Some key points:
1) An op amp is an electronic device that can perform mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc. It behaves like a voltage-controlled voltage source.
2) Common op amp configurations include inverting amplifiers, non-inverting amplifiers, summing amplifiers, difference amplifiers, and cascaded op amp circuits.
3) Ideal op amps have infinite input impedance, zero output impedance, and infinite voltage gain. Real op amps have limitations.
4) Capacitors store electric charge and energy in an electric field. Capacitance depends on
The document discusses operational amplifiers (op amps) and their applications in different circuit configurations:
1) An op amp is an electronic device that can perform mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, etc. It has high gain, very high input impedance, and very low output impedance.
2) Common op amp circuit configurations include the inverting amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, summing amplifier, difference amplifier, and instrumentation amplifier.
3) The summing amplifier produces an output voltage that is the weighted sum of its input voltages. The difference amplifier amplifies the difference between its two input voltages and rejects any components that are common to both inputs.
- Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are voltage amplifying devices used as basic building blocks in analog electronic circuits.
- Op-amps use external feedback components like resistors and capacitors connected between the output and input terminals to determine the amplifier's function.
- Common op-amp configurations include inverting amplifiers, non-inverting amplifiers, voltage followers, summing amplifiers, and transimpedance amplifiers.
- Inverting amplifiers invert the phase of the input signal and have a closed-loop voltage gain determined by the ratio of the feedback and input resistors. Transimpedance amplifiers convert input current to output voltage.
The document describes various applications of operational amplifiers including linear and non-linear circuits. Linear applications include scale/inverter circuits, summing amplifiers, subtractors, and instrumentation amplifiers. Non-linear applications include rectifiers, peak detectors, clippers/clampers, sample-and-hold circuits, and logarithmic/antilog amplifiers. The document also discusses voltage to current converters, current to voltage converters, and provides circuit diagrams and analysis for inverting/non-inverting summing amplifiers, subtractors, and instrumentation amplifiers.
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How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
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3. Chapter Goals
• Understand the “magic” of negative feedback and the
characteristics of ideal op amps.
• Understand the conditions for non-ideal op amp behavior so
they can be avoided in circuit design.
• Demonstrate circuit analysis techniques for ideal op amps.
• Characterize inverting, non-inverting, summing and
instrumentation amplifiers, voltage follower and first order
filters.
• Learn the factors involved in circuit design using op amps.
• Find the gain characteristics of cascaded amplifiers.
• Special Applications: The inverted ladder DAC and successive
approximation ADC
admission.edhole.com
4. Differential Amplifier Model: Basic
Represented by:
A = open-circuit voltage gain
vid = (v+
-v-
) = differential input signal
voltage
Rid = amplifier input resistance
Ro = amplifier output resistance
The signal developed at the amplifier
output is in phase with the voltage applied
at the + input (non-inverting) terminal
and 180° out of phase with that applied at
the - input (inverting) terminal.
admission.edhole.com
6. Ideal Operational Amplifier
• The “ideal” op amp is a special case of the ideal differential amplifier
with infinite gain, infinite Rid and zero Ro .
and
– If A is infinite, vid is zero for any finite output voltage.
– Infinite input resistance Rid forces input currents i+ and i- to be zero.
• The ideal op amp operates with the following assumptions:
– It has infinite common-mode rejection, power supply rejection,
open-loop bandwidth, output voltage range, output current capability
and slew rate
– It also has zero output resistance, input-bias currents, input-offset
current, and input-offset voltage.
A
ov
id
v = 0
id
vlim =
∞→A
admission.edhole.com
7. The Inverting Amplifier: Configuration
• The positive input is grounded.
• A “feedback network” composed of resistors R1 and R2 is connected
between the inverting input, signal source and amplifier output node,
respectively.
admission.edhole.com
8. Inverting Amplifier:Voltage Gain
• The negative voltage gain
implies that there is a 1800
phase
shift between both dc and
sinusoidal input and output
signals.
• The gain magnitude can be
greater than 1 if R2 > R1
• The gain magnitude can be less
than 1 if R1 > R2
• The inverting input of the op
amp is at ground potential
(although it is not connected
directly to ground) and is said to
be at virtual ground.
0ov
22
i
1
isv =−−− RRs
1
sv
si
R
=∴
But is= i2 and v- = 0 (since vid= v+ - v-= 0)
and
1
2
sv
ov
R
R
vA −==
admission.edhole.com
9. Inverting Amplifier: Input and Output
Resistances
R
in
=
vs
is
=R
1
sincev−=0
Rout is found by applying a test current
(or voltage) source to the amplifier
output and determining the voltage (or
current) after turning off all
independent sources. Hence, vs = 0
11
i
22
ixv RR +=
But i1=i2
)
12
(
1
ixv RR +=∴
Since v- = 0, i1=0. Therefore vx = 0
irrespective of the value of ix .
0=∴ outR
admission.edhole.com
10. Inverting Amplifier: Example
• Problem: Design an inverting amplifier
• Given Data: Av= 20 dB, Rin = 20kΩ,
• Assumptions: Ideal op amp
• Analysis: Input resistance is controlled by R1 and voltage gain is set
by R2 / R1.
and Av= -100
A minus sign is added since the amplifier is inverting.
AvdB
=20log
10
Av
, ∴Av=1040dB/20dB=100
Ω== k20
1 in
RR
Av=−
R
2
R
1
⇒R
2
=100R
1
=2MΩ
admission.edhole.com
11. The Non-inverting Amplifier: Configuration
• The input signal is applied to the non-inverting input terminal.
• A portion of the output signal is fed back to the negative input
terminal.
• Analysis is done by relating the voltage at v1 to input voltage vs and
output voltage vo .
admission.edhole.com
12. Non-inverting Amplifier: Voltage Gain,
Input Resistance and Output Resistance
Since i-=0 and
But vid =0
Since i+=0
21
1
ov
1
v
RR
R
+
= 1
v
id
vsv =−
1
vsv =∴
1
21
1
21
sv
ov
1
21
svov
R
R
R
RR
vA
R
RR
+=
+
==∴
+
=
∞=
+
=
i
sv
in
R
Rout is found by applying a test current source to the amplifier output
after setting vs = 0. It is identical to the output resistance of the inverting
amplifier i.e. Rout = 0.
admission.edhole.com
13. Non-inverting Amplifier: Example
• Problem: Determine the output voltage and current for the given non-
inverting amplifier.
• Given Data: R1= 3kΩ, R2 = 43kΩ, vs= +0.1 V
• Assumptions: Ideal op amp
• Analysis:
Since i-=0,
Av=1+
R
2
R
1
=1+
43kΩ
3kΩ
=15.3
vo=Avvs=(15.3)(0.1V)=1.53V
A3.33
k3k43
V53.1
12
ov
oi µ=
Ω+Ω
=
+
=
RR
admission.edhole.com
14. Finite Open-loop Gain and Gain Error
21
1
ovov
21
1
1
v
RR
R
RR
R
+
=
=
+
=
β
β
is called the
feedback factor.
β
β
A
A
vA
AAA
+
==
−=−==
1sv
ov
)ovsv()
1
vsv(
id
vov
Aβ is called loop gain.
For Aβ >>1,
Av≅
1
β
=1+
R
2
R
1
This is the “ideal” voltage gain of
the amplifier. If Aβ is not >>1,
there will be “Gain Error”.
admission.edhole.com
15. Gain Error
• Gain Error is given by
GE = (ideal gain) - (actual gain)
For the non-inverting amplifier,
• Gain error is also expressed as a fractional or percentage
error.
)1(
1
1
1
ββββ AA
A
GE
+
=
+
−=
FGE=
1
β
−
A
1+Aβ
1
β
=
1
1+Aβ
≅
1
Aβ
PGE≅
1
Aβ
×100%
admission.edhole.com
16. Gain Error: Example
• Problem: Find ideal and actual gain and gain error in percent
• Given data: Closed-loop gain of 100,000, open-loop gain of
1,000,000.
• Approach: The amplifier is designed to give ideal gain and deviations
from the ideal case have to be determined. Hence,
.
Note: R1 and R2 aren’t designed to compensate for the finite open-loop
gain of the amplifier.
• Analysis:
β=
1
105
Av=
A
1+Aβ
=
106
1+
106
105
=9.09x104
PGE=
105−9.09x104
105
×100%=9.09%
admission.edhole.com
17. Output Voltage and Current Limits
Practical op amps have limited
output voltage and current ranges.
Voltage: Usually limited to a few
volts less than power supply span.
Current: Limited by additional
circuits (to limit power dissipation
or protect against accidental short
circuits).
The current limit is frequently
specified in terms of the minimum
load resistance that the amplifier
can drive with a given output
voltage swing. Eg: io=
5V
500Ω
=10mA
)
21
(
ov
12
ovov
F
i
L
ioi
RR
L
R
EQ
R
EQ
RRR
L
R
+=
=
+
+=+=
For the inverting amplifier,
2
R
L
R
EQ
R =
admission.edhole.com
23. The Unity-gain Amplifier or “Buffer”
• This is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier, which is also
called a voltage follower, with infinite R1 and zero R2. Hence Av = 1.
• It provides an excellent impedance-level transformation while
maintaining the signal voltage level.
• The “ideal” buffer does not require any input current and can drive
any desired load resistance without loss of signal voltage.
• Such a buffer is used in many sensor and data acquisition system
applications.
admission.edhole.com
24. The Summing Amplifier
• Scale factors for the 2 inputs
can be independently adjusted
by the proper choice of R2 and
R1.
• Any number of inputs can be
connected to a summing
junction through extra
resistors.
• This circuit can be used as a
simple digital-to-analog
converter. This will be
illustrated in more detail, later.
1
1
v
1
i
R
=
2
2
v
2
i
R
=
3
ov
3
i
R
−=
Since the negative amplifier
input is at virtual ground,
Since i-=0, i3= i1 + i2,
∴vo=−
R
3
R
1
v
1
−
R
3
R
2
v
2
admission.edhole.com
25. The Difference Amplifier
• This circuit is also called a
differential amplifier, since it
amplifies the difference between
the input signals.
• Rin2 is series combination of R1
and R2 because i+ is zero.
• For v2=0, Rin1= R1, as the circuit
reduces to an inverting amplifier.
• For general case, i1 is a function
of both v1 and v2.
1
v
1
2-v
1
21)-v
1
v(
1
2-v
21
i-v
22
i-vov
R
R
R
RR
R
R
RR
−
+
=−−
−=−=
=
v+=
R
2
R
1
+R
2
v
2
Also,
Since v-= v+
)
2
v
1
(v
1
2v −−=
R
R
o
For R2= R1
)
2
v
1
(vv −−=o
admission.edhole.com
26. Difference Amplifier: Example
• Problem: Determine vo
• Given Data: R1= 10kΩ, R2 =100kΩ, v1=5 V, v2=3 V
• Assumptions: Ideal op amp. Hence, v-= v+ and i-= i+= 0.
• Analysis: Using dc values,
A
dm
=−
R
2
R
1
=−
100kΩ
10kΩ
=−10
Vo=A
dm
V
1
−V
2
=−10(5−3)
Vo=−20.0 V
Here Adm is called the “differential mode voltage gain” of the difference amplifier.
admission.edhole.com
27. Finite Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
(CMRR)
A(or Adm) = differential-mode gain
Acm = common-mode gain
vid = differential-mode input voltage
vic = common-mode input voltage
A real amplifier responds to signal
common to both inputs, called the
common-mode input voltage (vic).
In general, vo=A
dm
v
id
+
Acmv
ic
A
dm
=A
dm
v
id
+
v
ic
CMRR
CMRR=
A
dm
Acm
and CMRR(dB)=20log
10
(CMRR)
An ideal amplifier has Acm = 0, but for a
real amplifier,
21
id
v
ic
vv +=
22
id
v
ic
vv −=
vo=A
dm
(v
1
−v
2
)+Acm
v
1
+v
2
2
vo=A
dm
(v
id
)+Acm(v
ic
)
admission.edhole.com
28. Finite Common-Mode Rejection Ratio:
Example
• Problem: Find output voltage error introduced by finite CMRR.
• Given Data: Adm= 2500, CMRR = 80 dB, v1 = 5.001 V, v2 = 4.999 V
• Assumptions: Op amp is ideal, except for CMRR. Here, a CMRR in dB
of 80 dB corresponds to a CMRR of 104
.
• Analysis:
The output error introduced by finite CMRR is 25% of the expected ideal
output.
v
id
=5.001V−4.999V
v
ic
=5.001V+4.999V
2
=5.000V
vo=A
dm
v
id
+
v
ic
CMRR
=25000.002+5.000
104
V=6.25V
In the "ideal" case, vo=A
dm
v
id
=5.00 V
%outputerror=
6.25−5.00
5.00
×100%=25%
admission.edhole.com
34. Instrumentation Amplifier
Combines 2 non-inverting amplifiers
with the difference amplifier to
provide higher gain and higher input
resistance.
)
b
va(v
3
4v −−=
R
R
o
b
v
2
i)
1
i(2
2
iav =−−− RRR
1
2
2
v
1
v
i
R
−
=
)
2
v
1
(v
1
21
3
4v −+−=∴
R
R
R
R
o
Ideal input resistance is infinite
because input current to both op
amps is zero. The CMRR is
determined only by Op Amp 3.
NOTE
admission.edhole.com
35. Instrumentation Amplifier: Example
• Problem: Determine Vo
• Given Data: R1 = 15 kΩ, R2 = 150 kΩ, R3 = 15 kΩ, R4 = 30 kΩ V1 = 2.5 V,
V2 = 2.25 V
• Assumptions: Ideal op amp. Hence, v-= v+ and i-= i+= 0.
• Analysis: Using dc values,
A
dm
=−
R
4
R
3
1+
R
2
R
1
=−
30kΩ
15kΩ
1+
150kΩ
15kΩ
=−22
Vo=A
dm
(V
1
−V
2
)=−22(2.5−2.25)=−5.50V
admission.edhole.com
36. The Active Low-pass Filter
Use a phasor approach to gain analysis of
this inverting amplifier. Let s = jω.
Av=
˜vo(jω)
˜v(jω)
=−
Z
2
( jω)
Z
1
( jω)
Z
1
jω( )=R
1
Z
2
(jω)=
R
2
1
jωC
R
2
+
1
jωC
=
R
2
jωCR
2
+1
Av=−
R
2
R
1
1
(1+jωCR
2
)
=
R
2
R
1
e
jπ
(1+
jω
ωc
)
ωc=2πfc= 1
R
2
C
∴fc= 1
2πR
2
C
fc is called the high frequency “cutoff” of
the low-pass filter.admission.edhole.com
37. Active Low-pass Filter (continued)
• At frequencies below fc (fH in the
figure),the amplifier is an
inverting amplifier with gain set
by the ratio of resistors R2 and
R1.
• At frequencies above fc, the
amplifier response “rolls off” at
-20dB/decade.
• Notice that cutoff frequency and
gain can be independently set.
Av=
R
2
R
1
e
jπ
(1+
jω
ωc
)
=
R
2
R
1
12+
ω
ωc
2
e
jπ
e
jtan−1(ω/ωc)
=
R
2
R
1
1+
ω
ωc
2
e
j[π−tan−1(ω/ωc)]
magnitude phase
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38. Active Low-pass Filter: Example
• Problem: Design an active low-pass filter
• Given Data: Av= 40 dB, Rin= 5 kΩ, fH = 2 kHz
• Assumptions: Ideal op amp, specified gain represents the desired low-
frequency gain.
• Analysis:
Input resistance is controlled by R1 and voltage gain is set by R2 / R1.
The cutoff frequency is then set by C.
The closest standard capacitor value of 160 pF lowers cutoff
frequency to 1.99 kHz.
100dB20/dB4010 ==vA
Ω== k5
1 in
RR Av=
R
2
R
1
⇒R
2
=100R
1
=500kΩ
C= 1
2πf
H
R
2
= 1
2π(2kHz)(500kΩ)
=159pF
and
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42. Cascaded Amplifiers
• Connecting several amplifiers in cascade (output of one stage connected to
the input of the next) can meet design specifications not met by a single
amplifier.
• Each amplifer stage is built using an op amp with parameters A, Rid, Ro,
called open loop parameters, that describe the op amp with no external
elements.
• Av, Rin, Rout are closed loop parameters that can be used to describe each
closed-loop op amp stage with its feedback network, as well as the overall
composite (cascaded) amplifier.
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43. Two-port Model for a 3-stage Cascade
Amplifier
• Each amplifier in the 3-stage cascaded amplifier is replaced by its 2-port
model.
vo=A
vA
vs
R
inB
R
outA
+R
inB
A
vB
R
inC
R
outB
+R
inC
A
vC
vC
A
vB
A
vA
AvA ==
sv
ov
Since Rout= 0
Rin= RinA and Rout= RoutC = 0
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44. A Problem: Voltage Follower Closed
Loop Gain Error due to A and CMRR
ovsv
id
v −=
2
ovsv
ic
v
+
=
vo=A vs−vo( )+
vs+vo( )
2(CMRR)
Av=
vo
vs
=
A1+
1
2(CMRR)
1+A1−
1
2(CMRR)
The ideal gain for the voltage
follower is unity. The gain error
here is:
GE=1−Av=
1−
A
CMRR
1+A1−
1
2(CMRR)
Since, both A and CMRR are
normally >>1,
GE≅
1
A
−
1
CMRR
Since A ~ 106
and CMRR ~ 104
at
low to moderate frequency, the gain
error is quite small and is, in fact,
usually negligible.
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45. Inverted R-2R Ladder DAC
• A very common DAC circuit architecture with good precision.
• Currents in the ladder and the reference source are independent of digital
input. This contributes to good conversion precision.
• Complementary currents are available at the output of inverted ladder.
• The “bit switches” need to have very low on-resistance to minimize
conversion errors.
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46. Successive Approximation ADC
• Binary search is used by the SAL to determine vX.
• n-bit conversion needs n clock periods. Speed is
limited by the time taken by the DAC output to
settle within a fraction of an LSB of VFS , and by the
comparator to respond to input signals differing by
small amounts.
• Slowly varying input signals, not changing by
more than 0.5 LSB (VFS /2n+1
) during the conversion
time (TT = nTC) are acceptable.
• For a sinusoidal input signal with p-p amplitude =
VFS,
• To avoid this frequency limitation, a high speed
sample-and-hold circuit is used ahead of the
successive approximation ADC.
• This is a very popular ADC with fast conversion
times, used in 8- to 16- bit converters.
fo≤
fc
2n+2(n+1)π
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