A full stack web development course for beginners should provide a comprehensive overview of the key skills and knowledge necessary to create complete web applications, including both frontend and backend components. Here are some objectives that the course should aim to achieve: 1. **Understanding Web Technologies**: - Learn the basic concepts of web development, including client-server architecture and the internet's functioning. - Gain familiarity with key technologies such as HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and HTTP. 2. **Frontend Development**: - Learn the fundamentals of HTML and CSS for building web pages and styling them. - Gain proficiency in JavaScript for adding interactivity and dynamic behavior to web pages. - Introduction to popular frontend libraries and frameworks such as React, Angular, or Vue.js. 3. **Backend Development**: - Learn how to create server-side applications using languages such as Python, Node.js, Ruby, or PHP. - Understand the role of a server in handling requests, processing data, and sending responses to the client. 4. **Database Management**: - Understand the concepts of databases and data modeling. - Gain experience working with relational databases such as MySQL or PostgreSQL, and NoSQL databases such as MongoDB. - Learn how to perform CRUD (Create, Read, Update, Delete) operations on databases. 5. **API Development**: - Learn how to create RESTful APIs for communication between frontend and backend. - Understand how to document and consume APIs. 6. **Authentication and Security**: - Learn methods for handling user authentication and authorization. - Understand basic security practices such as input validation and protection against common vulnerabilities (e.g., SQL injection, XSS). 7. **Full Stack Integration**: - Gain experience integrating frontend and backend components to create complete web applications. - Learn how to deploy a full stack application to a hosting environment. 8. **Version Control**: - Understand the importance of version control and learn how to use Git for collaborative development and source code management. 9. **Project Management and Best Practices**: - Learn software development best practices such as code organization, debugging, and testing. - Gain experience working on projects and building a portfolio of completed projects. 10. **Collaboration and Communication**: - Develop skills in working effectively with other team members and stakeholders. - Understand how to communicate technical concepts clearly and effectively. By the end of the course, students should be able to create, deploy, and maintain full stack web applications with a good understanding of the technologies and practices involved. Full stack web development encompasses the creation of both front-end and back-end elements of a web application. Front-end development deals with designing the user interface and experience for users.

1. Module - 1: OP AMP Fundamentals
❖ Basic op Amp Circuit
❖ Op Amp parameters
➢ Input & Output Voltage
➢ CMRR
➢ PSRR
➢ Offset V & I
➢ i/p & o/p Impedance
❖ Op Amp as Direct Coupled (DC) Amplifiers
➢ DC Voltage Followers
➢ DC Inverting Amplifiers
➢ DC Non Inverting Amplifiers
1

2. ● Linear IC or Analog IC
● Versatile device, used for many Applications like
○ Signal Amplification
○ Oscillators
○ Multivibrators
○ Regulators
○ Peak Detectors
○ Mathematical operations like addition, Subtraction, Multiplication,
Integration etc...
2
Introduction
Op Amp Intro

3. 3
Symbol
Five terminal
● Inverting Input terminal
● Non - Inverting Input terminal
● Output Voltage terminal
● + Supply Voltage terminal
● - Supply Voltage terminal
Op Amp Intro

4. 4
Op Amp Intro

5. IC 741 Op Amp
5
Op Amp Intro

6. Blocks of Op Amp
6
Op Amp Intro

7. Practical Vs ideal Op - Amp Characteristics
7
Op Amp Intro

8. Modes of Operation
8
❖ Inverting Mode
❖ Non - Inverting mode
❖ Differential mode
Op Amp Intro

9. Inverting Mode
9
Vo = - AV * Vi
Where
Vo = o/p Voltage
Vi = i/p Voltage &
AV = open loop Voltage gain
The negative sign indicates the phase shift of 180o between
input and output signals
Op Amp Intro

10. 10
Non - Inverting Mode
Vo = AV * Vi
Where
Vo = o/p Voltage
Vi = i/p Voltage &
AV = open loop Voltage gain
Op Amp Intro

11. 11
Differential Mode
Vd = (V1 - V2)
Vo = AV * Vd
Vo = AV * (V1 - V2)
Where
Vo = o/p Voltage
V1 = i/p Voltage applied to + terminal
V2 = i/p Voltage applied to - terminal &
AV = open loop Voltage gain
Op Amp Intro

12. To produce a 5 V output voltage, find the required voltage difference between
the input terminals of 741 op amp. Assume Av = 2,00,000
12
5V
AV
?
Sol:
Vo = AV * Vd
Op Amp Intro

13. Basic Operational Amplifier Circuit
13
Differential amplifier stage
Emitter Follower o/p
Basic Op Amp Circuit

14. 14
Assume Q1 and Q2 are Identical transistors
i.e. VBE1 = VBE2 & 𝛽1 = 𝛽2
Q1 and Q2 bases at GND lvl
Then IE1 = IE2
Both emitter currents flows through RE..
With Q1 and Q2 bases Grounded
So,
Vo = VCC - VRC - VBE3
Basic Op Amp Circuit

15. Ex. 1: Given VCC = +10V, VEE = -10V, RE = 4.7 kΩ, RC = 6.8 kΩ, and all transistors have VBE
= 0.7V, Find the output voltage Vo assuming both Q1 and Q2 bases are at GND lvl.
15
IE1 = IE2 = 1mA
Then, IC1 = IC2 ≈ 1mA
Vo = VCC - VRC - VBE3
= 10 - 1m*6.8k - 0.7
= 2.5 V
Basic Op Amp Circuit

16. 16
Basic Op Amp Circuit
Consider a + tive going voltage is applied to
#3.
Q1 base is Pulled up by the i/p Voltage.
Q1 Emitter tends to follow the i/p Voltage.
∵ Q1 and Q2 emitters are tied together,
Q2 emitter is also pulled up.
VBE2 is reduced
So, IC2 will decrease.
Vo = VCC - VRC - VBE3
From this Expression, VRC will reduce due to
reduction of IC2,
⇒ Vo ↑
So, a +tive going voltage to non - inverting terminal(#3) will increase
the output voltage and vice versa.

17. 17
Basic Op Amp Circuit
Ex. 2: Assume that the Positive going input voltage at the base of Q1 in Ex. 1 reduces the
IC2 by 0.2mA, (i.e., from 1mA to 0.8mA). Determine the new output voltage.
Vo = VCC - VRC - VBE3
= 10 - 0.8m*6.8k - 0.7
= 3.9V.
The output voltage Vo changes
from 2.5 V to 3.9V.
Vo ↑

18. 18
Basic Op Amp Circuit
Consider a + tive going voltage is applied to
#2.
Q2 base is Pulled up by the i/p Voltage.
Q2 Emitter tends to follow the i/p Voltage.
∵ Q1 and Q2 emitters are tied together,
Q1 emitter is also pulled up.
VBE2 is Increased.
So, IC2 will increase.
Vo = VCC - VRC - VBE3
From this Expression, VRC will increase due
to increase of IC2,
⇒ Vo ↓
So, a +tive going voltage to inverting terminal(#2) will decrease the
output voltage and vice versa.

19. 19
Basic Op Amp Circuit
Ex. 3: Assume that the Positive going input voltage at the base of Q2 in Ex. 1 Increases the
IC2 by 0.2mA, (i.e., from 1mA to 1.2mA). Determine the new output voltage.
Vo = VCC - VRC - VBE3
= 10 - 1.2m*6.8k - 0.7
= 1.1V
The output voltage Vo changes
from 2.5 V to 1.1V.
Vo ↓

20. 20
Op Amp Circuit
The Voltage Follower Circuit
The Voltage Follower
circuit
Basic Op AMP as Voltage follower

21. 21
Op Amp Circuit
The o/p terminal(#6) is connected to the
inverting i/p terminal(#2).
With #3 at GND lvl, #2 and the output
(#6) must also be at GND lvl
If consider the o/p lvl is to move slightly
above GND lvl,
➔ the base of Q2 would be higher than
the base of Q1.
➔ IC2↑, leads to VRC ↑
➔ Pushing the Vo down until VB1 = VB2
And Vice versa.,
This above theory holds good, if the input voltage is applied to #3
Thus the output follows the input.

22. 22
Op Amp Circuit
Due to high internal voltage gain, a small
difference between the i/p and the o/p.
To produce the o/p closely to the i/p, the
differential i/p voltage is
Where, M is the open loop voltage gain
The Exact o/p voltage be then
Vo = Vi - Vd

23. 23

24. 24
Op Amp Circuit
Ex. 4: A 741 IC op amp is connected to function as a voltage follower. The input
signal is 1V. Assuming the amplifier gain is the only error source, determine the
o/p voltage that occurs with an op amp which has a). Typical gain, b) Minimum
gain.
Vo = Vi - Vd = 1 - 5μ = 0.999 995 V
For a typical gain of 2,00,000 For a Minimum gain of 50,000
Vo = Vi - Vd = 1 - 20μ = 0.999 98 V

25. 25
Op Amp Circuit
The Non Inverting Amplifier
Non Inverting Amplifier
Basic Op AMP as Non Inverting Amplifier

26. 26
Op Amp Circuit
Works similar way as that of Voltage
follower.
Difference is, instead of all the output fed
back to the inverting terminal, a portion of
output is fed back.
The Vo is potentially divided across
resistors, R2 & R3.
When Vi = GND:
➔ #2, also in GND lvl
➔ If not, any voltage difference will be
amplified to move the inverting as
well as the #6 at GND lvl.

27. 27
Op Amp Circuit
➔ VR3 = 0V
➔ The current I2 through R2 & R3 =0mA
➔ ∴ Vo = 0V
When Vi = 100mV
➔ The output voltage Vo moves to a level that makes
the feedback voltage to #2 equal to 100mV.
VR3 = Vi = I2 R3
Vo = I2(R2 + R3)

28. 28
Op Amp Circuit
Ex. 5: An op-amp non inverting amplifier as illustrated in fig., has R2 as 8.2kΩ and
R3, as 150Ω. Calculate the amplifier voltage gain, and determine a new resistance
value for R3 to give a gain of 75.
= 55.7
≃111Ω

29. 29
Op Amp Circuit
The Inverting Amplifier
Inverting Amplifier
Basic Op AMP as Inverting Amplifier

30. 30
Op Amp Circuit
➔ Because #3 is at GND lvl, #2 also at GND lvl
➔ #2 is Virtual grounded
➔ So the input signal Vi is dropping across R1 &
the output signal Vo is dropping across R2.
Vi = I1 R1
Vo = - I1 R2

31. 31
Op Amp Circuit
Ex. 6: An op-amp inverting amplifier as illustrated in fig., has R1 as 270Ω and R2,
as 8.2 kΩ. Calculate the amplifier voltage gain, and determine a new resistance
value for R1 to give a gain of 60.

32. 32
Op Amp Parameters
Input Voltage Range

33. 33
Op Amp Parameters
The Maximum +tive going and -tive going input voltage that may be applied
to an operational amplifier is termed as Input Voltage Range .

34. 34
Op Amp Parameters
Output Voltage Range

35. 35
Op Amp Parameters
The Rough approximation for most of the Operational Amplifiers is that the
Maximum output swing is approximately equal to 1V less than the supply
voltage

36. 36
Op Amp Parameters
Power Supply Voltage Rejection
The power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) is a measure of how effective the
operational amplifier is in dealing with the variations in supply voltage
(changes in +VCC & -VEE).
If a variation of 1V in VCC or VEE causes the output to change by 1V, then
PSSR = 1V per volt (1 V/V).
For 741 op amp, the PSRR is typically 30 μV/V, &, for LM 108 the supply
voltage rejection is 96dB.

37. 37
Op Amp Circuit
Ex. 7: A 741 operational amplifier uses a ± 15V supply with a 2mV, 120 Hz ripple
voltage superimposed. Calculate the amplitude of the output voltage produced by
the power supply ripple.
Vo(rip) = VS(rip) * PSRR
= 2 mV * 30 μV/V
= 60 nV

38. 38
Op Amp Parameters
Input Offset Voltage
For the output voltage to be exactly as that of input,
Q1 and Q2 must be a perfect match.
Vo = Vi - VBE1 + VBE2
With VBE1 = VBE2, & Vi = 0V
Vo = 0V
Consider VBE1 = 0.7 V & VBE2 = 0.6V
Now Vo = -0.1V
This unwanted output is known as an Output offset
Voltage.
To set Vo to Gnd lvl, the input would have to be
raised to 0.1V. This is termed as Input offset
Voltage(Vos)
In voltage follower circuit, the output and
the Inverting terminal follow the voltage at
the non inverting input.

39. 39
Op Amp Parameters
Input Offset Current
If Q1 and Q2 i/p transistors are not a perfect match, then
their current gain (hfe) will not be the same.
Thus, when both transistors have equal collector current,
the base current will never be same.
For ex., the base current of one might be 1 μA and the
other might be 1.2 μA.
The difference in these two current levels is known as the
Input offset current (Ios)

40. 40
Op Amp Parameters
Input Impedance
For all linear applications, some forms of negative feedback is provided externally connected
components.
The input impedance with negative feedback is given as
Zin = (1 + Mβ) Zi
Where ,
Zi = the op amp i/p impedance
without -tive feedback
M = op amp open loop gain
β = feedback factor

41. 41
Op Amp Parameters
Output Impedance
For all linear applications, some forms of negative feedback is provided externally connected
components.
The output impedance with negative feedback is given as
Where ,
Zo = the op amp o/p impedance without -tive feedback
M = op amp open loop gain
β = feedback factor.

42. 42
Op Amp Parameters

43. 43
Op Amp Circuit
Ex. 8: For a 741 operational amplifier Voltage follower, calculate the Minimum
input impedance. Also calculate the typical output impedance of the same.
For voltage follower, Feedback factor β = 1.
Zin = (1 + Mβ) Zi
Zi(Min) = 0.3 MΩ & MMin = 50,000
Zin = (1 + 50000 * 1 ) 0.3 *106
= 15 000 MΩ
Zo(Typ) = 75Ω & MTyp = 2 00 000.
= 37✕ 10-5 Ω

44. 44
Op Amp Parameters
Slew Rate
Slew rate (S) of an operational amplifier is the Maximum rate at which the output voltage can
change.
When the slew rate is too slow for the input, distortion results.
Sine wave input to a voltage follower producing a triangular output due to less slew rate.

45. 45
Op Amp Parameters
Slew Rate cont...
The Typical slew rate(S) for a 741 opamp is 0.5 V per microsec.
i.e., for the output to change by 0.5V, 1μs is required for 741 op amp.
The equation relating time, voltage change and the slew rate is
Ex. 9: For a 741 operational amplifier Voltage follower, calculate the Minimum time
required to change the output voltage by 10V
= 20μs

46. 46
Op Amp Parameters
CMRR
Considering the base of Q1 and Q2 are raised
to 1V above ground
The voltage drop across the emitter resistor
RE is increased by 1 V, and
So, IC1 and IC2 are increased.
changing the output voltage. (Vo ≠ 0 V)
The two input terminals are connected together and both are raised by 1V above the Ground
level. This is known as a Common Mode Input.
Now the differential input(Vd) is Zero; So ideally the operational amplifier should be Zero.

47. 47
Op Amp Parameters
CMRR cont..
The common mode gain (ACM) is the ratio of output voltage changes due to the common mode
input to the common mode input
The success of an op-amp in rejecting the common mode inputs is defined in the common
mode rejection ratio (CMRR).
CMRR is the ratio of the open-loop gain (M) to the common mode gain (ACM).
The CMRR is usually expressed as a decibel quantity on the op-amp data sheet.
typical CMRR for the 741 op-amp is 96 dB

48. 48
DC coupled Amplifiers
Direct Coupled Voltage Followers
a resistor R1 is frequently used in series with the inverting terminal to match the source
resistance RS in series with the non inverting terminal.

49. 49
DC coupled Amplifiers
Need of Voltage follower
a high impedance source to a low impedance load.
Part of VS is lost when a low impedance load is directly connected to the high impedance
source

50. 50
DC coupled Amplifiers
Direct Coupled Voltage Followers
Zin = (1 + Mβ) Zi
∵ Zin ≫ RS; Vi ≅ VS
∵ Zout ≪ RL; Vo ≅ Vi
Vo = Vi - Vd
As Vd is very very less; Vo≅ Vi

51. 51

52. 52
DC coupled Amplifiers
Ex. 10: A voltage follower using a 741 op-amp, is connected to a signal source of 1 V via a
47 kΩ resistor and a 20 kΩ load. calculate the load voltage when
a) The load is directly connected to the source
b) The voltage follower is between the load and the source.

53. 53
DC coupled Amplifiers
DC Source without Voltage Follower
Fig a: RL directly connected to VCC
The load voltage VL derived directly from the VCC
VL varies if there is any variation in the RL

54. 54
DC coupled Amplifiers
Constant DC Source with a voltage follower
Fig b: Constant voltage source using voltage follower
A potential divider with a voltage follower
produces a constant load voltage irrespective of
any variations in RL.
The voltage input to the voltage follower is the
drop across R2.
So, Vo = VL will be effectively V2 itself,
irrespective of RL variations.

55. 55
DC coupled Amplifiers
Ex. 11: 1 kΩ load is to have 5 V developed across it from a 15 V source. Design suitable
circuits as shown in fig (a) and (b) and calculate the load voltage variations in each case
when the load resistance varies by -10%. Use 741 op amp for circuit (b).

56. 56
DC coupled Amplifiers
Direct - Coupled Non inverting Amplifiers
DC Noninverting Amplifier
The input signal VS is connected directly to
the non inverting terminal (#3) of the op-
amp via a resistor R1.
The R1 is included to equalize the IBR drops
at the op-amp inputs.

57. 57
DC coupled Amplifiers
Design
For a 741 op-amp:
Choose I2 >> IB(max) = 100 ×IB(max)
∵ VR3 = Vi,
In case of BiFET op-amps having the bias current very very less, the largest resistor is first
selected as 1 MΩ and then finds the current I2.
The output Vo appears across (R2 + R3),
R1 = R2 ∥ R3

58. 58
DC coupled Amplifiers
Ex. 12: Using a 741 op-amp, design a noninverting amplifier to have a voltage gain of
approximately 66. The input signal amplitude is to be 15 mV.
For a 741 op-amp:
Choose I2 >> IB(max) = 100 ×IB(max) = 100 × 500 nA = 50μA
∵ VR3 = Vi, VR3
Vo =
VR2 = Vo - VR3 =
R2 =

59. 59
DC coupled Amplifiers
Ex. 13: Redesign the noninverting amplifier in the previous example using a LF353
BiFET op-amp.
For a BiFET op-amp, the largest resistor is chosen as 1 MΩ.
For a voltage gain of 66, R2 is the largest resistor, So R2 = 1 MΩ.

60. 60
DC coupled Amplifiers
Direct - Coupled Non inverting Amplifiers
DC Noninverting Amplifier with i/p & o/p
impedance
The input impedance of the op-amp circuit
with a negative feedback is given as
Zin = (1 + M × β) Zi
For a noninverting amplifier, the feedback
factor, β is given as

61. 61
DC coupled Amplifiers
Direct - Coupled inverting Amplifiers
DC inverting Amplifier
The inverting amplifier includes R3 at the non
inverting terminal to equalize the IBR drops at
the op-amp inputs.
R3 = R1 ∥ R2
If R1 is not much larger as compared to RS, then
R3 =(R1 + RS) ∥ R2
The gain of this circuit is given as

62. Direct Coupled Inverting Amplifiers
62
Design Steps:for 741 op-amp
Current I1 is to be selected much higher than IB(max)
Choose I1>> IB(max) = 100 ×IB(max)
R1 = Vi/I1 ; R2 = Vo/I1
R3 = R1 ∥ R2
If R1 is not much larger as compared to RS, then
R3 =(R1 + RS) ∥ R2

63. Direct Coupled Inverting Amplifiers
63
Design of Direct Coupled Inverting Amplifier for LF353 BiFET op-amp:
For BiFET op-amps select the largest resistor value as 1 MΩ
R1=R2/Av
R3=R1 ॥ R2
Av = - R2/R1

64. Direct Coupled Inverting Amplifiers
64
INPUT AND OUTPUT IMPEDANCE OF DIRECT COUPLED INVERTING AMPLIFIER
The Resistor R1 is seen with its other end at
Ground level.
Zin = R1.

65. Direct Coupled Inverting Amplifiers
65
Ex. 14: Design an inverting amplifier using a 741 op-amp.The voltage
gain is to be 50 and the output voltage amplitude is to be 2.5 V.

66. Direct Coupled Inverting Amplifiers
66
Ex. 15: Redesign the inverting amplifier in the previous example using a
LF353 BiFET op-amp.