9 Reaction Kinetics
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The document discusses factors that affect chemical reaction rates and concepts related to reaction kinetics such as reaction order, rate equations, and rate determining steps. It provides examples of determining the order of reactions from experimental rate data and explains that the slowest step of a reaction, usually the first step, is the rate determining step whose order defines the overall reaction order.
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The Born-Haber cycle summarizes the standard enthalpy changes that occur during the formation of an ionic crystal from its gaseous constituent elements. It relates the standard enthalpy of sublimation, bond dissociation, electron affinity, and lattice energy to the standard enthalpy of atomization through Hess's law. For example, in forming NaCl, the standard enthalpy of atomization for sodium and chlorine contributes -411 kJ, which is balanced by the energy absorbed in ion formation, bond breaking, and crystal lattice formation.
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This document discusses weak acid-base equilibria according to Bronsted-Lowry theory. It defines acids and bases as proton donors and acceptors, respectively. Conjugate acid-base pairs are introduced. Strong acids and bases completely dissociate in water, while weak acids and bases only partially dissociate. The ionic product of water, Kw, relates the concentrations of H+ and OH- ions in solution. Equations are provided to calculate the pH of solutions containing weak acids or bases using their respective acid or base dissociation constants, Ka or Kb.
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The document discusses key concepts in thermodynamics including:
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2) Enthalpy is a measurement of the total energy of a system at constant pressure.
3) Chemical reactions can be exothermic or endothermic depending on whether energy is released or absorbed.
12 Entropy
Some endothermic reactions can occur spontaneously. Whether a reaction occurs depends on both the change in enthalpy and the change in entropy. Entropy refers to the disorder of a system, and spontaneous reactions often increase the randomness or disorder. The factors of enthalpy (H) and entropy (S) combine to give the free energy (G) of a system. For a reaction to be spontaneous, the change in free energy (ΔG) must be negative. A negative ΔG can result from an exothermic reaction (negative ΔH) or from an increase in disorder (positive ΔS).
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1) Equilibria occur in closed systems when the properties of the system no longer change with time, such as when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal.
2) According to Le Châtelier's principle, if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the equilibrium position will shift in a way that reduces the effect of the stress.
3) The equilibrium constant Kc is the ratio of products over reactants concentrations or partial pressures at equilibrium. If Kc is greater than 1, more products form, and if less than 1, more reactants form.
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This document discusses measuring enthalpy changes through calorimetry. It explains that the heat released or absorbed in a chemical reaction can be measured by transferring it to water and measuring the temperature change. The enthalpy change is calculated using the formula: ΔH = mass of water x specific heat capacity x temperature change. Sources of error include heat lost to the surroundings and errors in measurement. An example calculation is provided for finding the enthalpy of combustion of ethanol from experimental data.
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The document discusses the properties of the three states of matter - solids, liquids, and gases. It explains that in solids, particles vibrate in place and are closely packed. In liquids, particles move less than gases but conform to the shape of their container. Gases have the most energy, with particles moving rapidly and little attraction. The document also discusses the unique properties of water, including its polarity, ability to form hydrogen bonds, high heat capacity and heat of vaporization, and how it is less dense as a solid than as a liquid.
8 More On The Mole!
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The document summarizes the Bohr model of the atom and electronic configuration. It explains that electrons can only occupy certain energy levels or orbits around the nucleus, and that electrons in orbits further from the nucleus require more energy to remove. It also discusses how the ionization energy increases with each subsequent electron removed from atoms and ions. Finally, it introduces how elements are written with their full electron configuration including shells and subshells.
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The periodic table arranges elements horizontally by period and vertically by group. Elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells, while elements in the same group have the same number of outer shell electrons. Atomic radius decreases across a period as electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus, and increases down a group as more electron shells are added. Metallic character increases down groups and decreases across periods from left to right. Metals form positive ions more readily than larger atoms, while non-metals form negative ions more readily than smaller atoms.
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9 Reaction Kinetics
- 4. rate concentration a) In this case the rate concentration. When rate is directly proportional to the concentration we call this 1 st order with respect to the concentration of the reactant we are monitoring
- 5. rate concentration b) In this case the rate is independent of the concentration. We call this zero order with respect to the reactant we are monitoring
- 6. rate concentration c) We call this one 2 nd order with respect to the reactant we are monitoring
- 12. 2.4 x 10 -2 6 x 10 -3 4 x 10 -3 1.2 x 10 -2 6 x 10 -3 2 x 10 -3 3 x 10 -3 3 x 10 -3 2 x 10 -3 Initial rate mol/L/h Initial conc B mol/l Initial conc A mol/l