- The objective of this lecture is to explain fatigue and how resistance to fatigue failure depends on microstructure. Fatigue is failure due to alternating loads rather than static loads.
- Fatigue is characterized by an S-N curve which plots the stress versus the log of the number of cycles to failure. It shows whether the material has an endurance limit below which it does not fail.
- Fatigue failure involves crack initiation at a surface defect followed by crack propagation in stages I and II, with stage I influenced by microstructure and stage II less so. Modern damage tolerant design accepts the presence of cracks and predicts crack growth rates.
Fabrication is the processing of raw material or any semi finished product in the final shape by different methods such as welding, forming, sheet metal operations or casting. Solid Freeform Fabrication (SFF) is related to rapid prototype process.
This document discusses the implementation of the Energy Domain Integral method in ANSYS to calculate the 3D J-integral of a Compact Tension fracture specimen. It begins with providing theoretical background on fracture mechanics and the J-integral. It then discusses the contour integral method and weight function approach for numerically calculating the J-integral. The document describes creating a finite element model of a standard CT specimen in ANSYS and implementing the Energy Domain Integral method to calculate the J-integral. It concludes by comparing the ANSYS simulation results to theoretical and experimental results.
Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and unloading. It causes failure from crack initiation and propagation even when stresses are below the yield strength of the material. Fatigue was first observed in railroad and bridge components that cracked under repeated loading. Fatigue failure can occur suddenly and without warning in metals, plastics, rubbers, and concrete used in applications with rotating or fluctuating stresses like aircraft wings, springs, and pipes conveying fluid. The number of cycles to failure depends on the stress range and mean stress based on stress-life (S-N) curves, which can be corrected using the Goodman diagram for different stress ratios. Crack propagation rates under cyclic loading can be modeled in three regions based on stress
This document discusses fracture mechanics and provides background information on the topic. It introduces key concepts in fracture mechanics including stress intensity factor, linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM), ductile to brittle transition, and fracture toughness. Applications of fracture mechanics are described such as its use in analyzing cracking in pavement systems. The document also covers probabilistic fracture of brittle materials and how their strength is affected by the presence of flaws.
Fracture mechanics is the quantitative study of crack propagation in materials. It relates material properties, stress levels, presence of cracks or defects, and crack propagation mechanisms. The three main modes of crack displacement are Mode I (opening), Mode II (sliding), and Mode III (tearing). Stress intensity factor K characterizes the stress state near a crack tip and is used to define fracture toughness Kc, the critical value of K for fracture. Thicker materials experience plane strain conditions while thinner materials experience plane stress. Pressure vessels can be designed using fracture mechanics to ensure yield-before-failure or leak-before-burst depending on the critical relationship between KIc, stress σ, and crack size a.
Autoclave is a closed vessel (Round or Cylindrical) in which processes occur under simultaneous application of high temperature and pressure. Autoclave molding technique is similar to vacuum bag and pressure bag molding method with some modifications. This method employs an autoclave to provide heat and pressure to the composite product during curing.
The document discusses water jet machining (WJM) and abrasive water jet machining (AWJM). WJM uses high-pressure water to cut softer materials, while AWJM adds abrasive particles to the water jet to cut harder materials. The key components of an AWJM system are water delivery pumps, abrasive hoppers, intensifiers to increase water pressure, mixing and cutting heads, and catchers to contain the abrasive water jet after cutting. AWJM can machine virtually any material and offers advantages like fast setup times and minimal heat generation during cutting.
Fabrication is the processing of raw material or any semi finished product in the final shape by different methods such as welding, forming, sheet metal operations or casting. Solid Freeform Fabrication (SFF) is related to rapid prototype process.
This document discusses the implementation of the Energy Domain Integral method in ANSYS to calculate the 3D J-integral of a Compact Tension fracture specimen. It begins with providing theoretical background on fracture mechanics and the J-integral. It then discusses the contour integral method and weight function approach for numerically calculating the J-integral. The document describes creating a finite element model of a standard CT specimen in ANSYS and implementing the Energy Domain Integral method to calculate the J-integral. It concludes by comparing the ANSYS simulation results to theoretical and experimental results.
Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and unloading. It causes failure from crack initiation and propagation even when stresses are below the yield strength of the material. Fatigue was first observed in railroad and bridge components that cracked under repeated loading. Fatigue failure can occur suddenly and without warning in metals, plastics, rubbers, and concrete used in applications with rotating or fluctuating stresses like aircraft wings, springs, and pipes conveying fluid. The number of cycles to failure depends on the stress range and mean stress based on stress-life (S-N) curves, which can be corrected using the Goodman diagram for different stress ratios. Crack propagation rates under cyclic loading can be modeled in three regions based on stress
This document discusses fracture mechanics and provides background information on the topic. It introduces key concepts in fracture mechanics including stress intensity factor, linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM), ductile to brittle transition, and fracture toughness. Applications of fracture mechanics are described such as its use in analyzing cracking in pavement systems. The document also covers probabilistic fracture of brittle materials and how their strength is affected by the presence of flaws.
Fracture mechanics is the quantitative study of crack propagation in materials. It relates material properties, stress levels, presence of cracks or defects, and crack propagation mechanisms. The three main modes of crack displacement are Mode I (opening), Mode II (sliding), and Mode III (tearing). Stress intensity factor K characterizes the stress state near a crack tip and is used to define fracture toughness Kc, the critical value of K for fracture. Thicker materials experience plane strain conditions while thinner materials experience plane stress. Pressure vessels can be designed using fracture mechanics to ensure yield-before-failure or leak-before-burst depending on the critical relationship between KIc, stress σ, and crack size a.
Autoclave is a closed vessel (Round or Cylindrical) in which processes occur under simultaneous application of high temperature and pressure. Autoclave molding technique is similar to vacuum bag and pressure bag molding method with some modifications. This method employs an autoclave to provide heat and pressure to the composite product during curing.
The document discusses water jet machining (WJM) and abrasive water jet machining (AWJM). WJM uses high-pressure water to cut softer materials, while AWJM adds abrasive particles to the water jet to cut harder materials. The key components of an AWJM system are water delivery pumps, abrasive hoppers, intensifiers to increase water pressure, mixing and cutting heads, and catchers to contain the abrasive water jet after cutting. AWJM can machine virtually any material and offers advantages like fast setup times and minimal heat generation during cutting.
This summary provides the key details about four failure theories in 3 sentences:
The document discusses four common failure theories: 1) Maximum shear stress (Tresca) theory, which predicts failure when maximum shear stress equals yield stress, applies to ductile materials. 2) Maximum principal stress (Rankine) theory, which predicts failure when largest principal stress reaches ultimate stress. 3) Maximum normal strain (Saint Venant) theory, which predicts failure when maximum normal strain equals yield strain. 4) Maximum shear strain (distortion energy) theory, which predicts failure when distortion energy per unit volume equals strain energy at failure. The theories attempt to predict failure of materials subjected to multiaxial stress states.
This document discusses different types of fractures including brittle, ductile, fatigue, and creep fractures. It focuses on explaining brittle fracture in more detail. Brittle fracture occurs with minimal plastic deformation and when the broken pieces are fitted back together, the original shape and dimensions are restored. It is defined as fracture occurring at or below the material's elastic limit. The document then describes Griffith's theory of brittle fracture, which postulates that microcracks are always present in brittle materials and concentrate stress at their tips, leading to crack growth and fracture when the applied energy exceeds the strain energy of the cracks.
1. The document discusses fatigue, which is structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading below its tensile strength.
2. It describes how fatigue occurs through repeated loading and unloading causing microscopic cracks, and how factors like stress concentration, material properties, and the environment affect fatigue life.
3. The document outlines an experiment to determine the fatigue life of aluminum specimens under different stress levels using a fatigue testing machine. Results are analyzed to find the safe stress level for 1 million reversals.
This document summarizes a seminar on additive manufacturing (AM) presented by Ankush Kalia. It defines AM as a process that builds 3D objects by joining materials layer by layer under computer control using a 3D printer. The key steps in AM are modeling, printing, and finishing. Different AM methods are classified and compared in terms of design flexibility, cost of complexity, accuracy, assembly needs, and production efficiency. Capabilities of AM like multi-material printing and applications in areas like rapid prototyping, food, apparel, vehicles, firearms, medicine, bioprinting, space, and education are discussed. Current barriers to AM like scalability, resolution, material properties, and reliability are also presented
Dispersion Hardening:
Hard particles:
Mixed with matrix powder
Consolidated
Processed by powder metallurgy techniques
Second phase – Very little solubility (Even at elevated temp.)
No coherency
So thermally Stable at very high temp.
Resists :
Grain growth
Over aging
Recrystallization
Mobility of dislocation
Different from particle Metallic Composites (Volume Fraction is 3 to 4% max.) (Does not affect stiffness)
Examples : Al2O3 in Al or Cu, ThO2 in Ni
This document provides an introduction to fracture mechanics. It discusses different types of brittle and ductile fracture, modes of failure, energy release rate and crack resistance, crack growth, stress intensity factor, and the J-integral. It also mentions a case study on liberty ship failures and provides references for further reading. The key topics covered are the assumptions of fracture mechanics, using energy-based approaches like compliance and strain energy to analyze crack growth, and stress intensity factors which characterize how potent a crack is under different loading conditions.
A REVIEW ON GRAPHENE REINFORCED ALUMINIUM MATRIX COMPOSITEAnubhav Mahapatra
This document reviews graphene reinforced aluminium matrix composites prepared by spark plasma sintering. It discusses aluminium 7055 alloy and graphene materials, composite materials, the spark plasma sintering process, and applications. The scope is to study the effect of graphene reinforcement in aluminium and different fabrication processes. Spark plasma sintering allows for low-temperature, fast fabrication of composites with a strong interface between graphene and aluminium. Potential applications include satellites, automobiles, capacitors, and more. Further studies on mechanical and electrical properties are promising areas for future work.
1. There are five main theories of failure used to predict failure of machine components under multi-axial stresses: Rankine, Tresca, Saint Venant, Haigh, and Hencky-Von Mises.
2. Theories of failure are required because material strengths are determined from uni-axial tests, while actual components experience multi-axial stresses, and the theories relate uni-axial strengths to multi-axial stresses.
3. Rankine's theory applies to brittle materials and ductile materials under uniaxial or similar biaxial stresses, while Tresca's theory applies to ductile materials prone to shear failure.
Fatigue is important as it is the largest cause of failure in metals, estimated to comprise approximately 90% of all metallic failures; polymers and ceramics are also susceptible to this type of failure.
Mumbai University
Mechanical engineering
SEM III
Material Technology
Module 1.4
Strain Hardening:
Definition importance of strain hardening, Dislocation theory of strain hardening, Effect of strain hardening on engineering behaviour of materials, Recrystallization Annealing: stages of recrystallization annealing and factors affecting it
The document discusses plasticity theory and yield criteria. It introduces Hooke's law and its limitations under large strains. Generalized Hooke's law is presented for isotropic and anisotropic materials. Common stress-strain curves are shown including elastic-plastic and strain hardening responses. Several yield criteria are covered, including maximum principal stress, Tresca, and von Mises criteria. The von Mises criterion uses a second invariant of stress to predict yielding of ductile materials. An example compares predictions of yielding using Tresca and von Mises criteria for a given stress state in aluminum.
The document summarizes concepts related to fatigue in welded steel structures. It discusses the mechanism of fatigue failure, factors influencing fatigue behavior, effects of fatigue loading on structural members and weld connections, fatigue analysis methods including the S-N approach and fracture mechanics approach, Indian standard practices, techniques to improve fatigue strength, and conclusions.
This document provides an overview of fatigue in metals. It discusses stress cycles and the S-N curve used to represent fatigue data. The effects of mean stress, stress range, and stress concentration on fatigue properties are examined. Low cycle fatigue involving high strains is also covered. The document introduces approaches for assessing fatigue properties, including the cyclic stress-strain curve and fatigue crack growth resistance. Factors that influence fatigue such as temperature are also discussed.
Sintering is a process that uses heat to consolidate powder materials into a solid form without melting them. There are three main stages of sintering: initial bonding and neck formation between particles, densification and pore shrinkage, and final grain growth. The driving forces for sintering include reducing surface curvature, applied pressure, and chemical reactions. Key parameters that affect sintering include powder properties, consolidation method, firing temperature and atmosphere. The main mechanisms are surface, lattice, and grain boundary diffusion which allow atoms to migrate and bonds to form between powder particles over time.
This is a ppt which will give u a better understanding of fracture toughness of a material in short time. It also has great exposure to testing method that we do in our laboratory class in undergraduate courses. So good luck with slide.
This document discusses toughness and fracture toughness testing. It defines toughness as the energy absorbed by a material until fracture. Common toughness tests include the Charpy and Izod impact tests, which measure the energy absorbed during a high-velocity impact. However, these tests do not provide data needed for designing with cracks and flaws. Fracture toughness is a better property for design, as it indicates the stress required to propagate a preexisting flaw. The document outlines fracture toughness testing methods like compact tension and single edge notch bending specimens. It also discusses factors that influence fracture toughness values like material thickness, grain orientation, and plane strain versus plane stress conditions.
SLS is a rapid prototyping process that uses a laser to fuse powdered material like plastic, metal, or ceramic into a solid 3D object. A laser selectively fuses powdered material layer by layer based on a CAD model. The unfused powder acts as a support material and is removed after the build. SLS can produce parts with complex geometries from a variety of materials without the need for additional support structures.
This document provides an introduction to fracture mechanics from Ozen Engineering Inc. It discusses key fracture mechanics concepts like stress intensity factors, J-integrals, and cohesive zone modeling. It also outlines Ozen's fracture mechanics training sessions which will cover topics like linear elastic fracture mechanics analysis in ANSYS, extended finite element modeling, and fatigue crack propagation modeling.
This document provides an overview of fatigue failure. It begins by defining fatigue as the premature failure or lowering of strength of a material due to repetitive stresses, even if they are below the material's yield strength. It then discusses key topics in fatigue such as stress cycles, S-N curves, fatigue testing, and factors that affect fatigue life. Crack initiation and propagation stages are described. Methods for improving fatigue performance, such as shot peening and removing stress concentrators, are also covered.
Professor Bill Lee, Imperial College - Diversification in Advanced CeramicsCeramics 2011
The document discusses the Centre for Advanced Structural Ceramics (CASC) at Imperial College London and opportunities for industry collaboration. CASC works with UK academics and has partnerships with several companies. It provides funding, equipment, and expertise in ceramics research areas like bioceramics and materials for energy and defense. The center recently added new faculty and resources and holds meetings and training to support the UK ceramics community. Industry can join CASC's consortium for access to facilities and researchers or pursue other national and European funding.
This summary provides the key details about four failure theories in 3 sentences:
The document discusses four common failure theories: 1) Maximum shear stress (Tresca) theory, which predicts failure when maximum shear stress equals yield stress, applies to ductile materials. 2) Maximum principal stress (Rankine) theory, which predicts failure when largest principal stress reaches ultimate stress. 3) Maximum normal strain (Saint Venant) theory, which predicts failure when maximum normal strain equals yield strain. 4) Maximum shear strain (distortion energy) theory, which predicts failure when distortion energy per unit volume equals strain energy at failure. The theories attempt to predict failure of materials subjected to multiaxial stress states.
This document discusses different types of fractures including brittle, ductile, fatigue, and creep fractures. It focuses on explaining brittle fracture in more detail. Brittle fracture occurs with minimal plastic deformation and when the broken pieces are fitted back together, the original shape and dimensions are restored. It is defined as fracture occurring at or below the material's elastic limit. The document then describes Griffith's theory of brittle fracture, which postulates that microcracks are always present in brittle materials and concentrate stress at their tips, leading to crack growth and fracture when the applied energy exceeds the strain energy of the cracks.
1. The document discusses fatigue, which is structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading below its tensile strength.
2. It describes how fatigue occurs through repeated loading and unloading causing microscopic cracks, and how factors like stress concentration, material properties, and the environment affect fatigue life.
3. The document outlines an experiment to determine the fatigue life of aluminum specimens under different stress levels using a fatigue testing machine. Results are analyzed to find the safe stress level for 1 million reversals.
This document summarizes a seminar on additive manufacturing (AM) presented by Ankush Kalia. It defines AM as a process that builds 3D objects by joining materials layer by layer under computer control using a 3D printer. The key steps in AM are modeling, printing, and finishing. Different AM methods are classified and compared in terms of design flexibility, cost of complexity, accuracy, assembly needs, and production efficiency. Capabilities of AM like multi-material printing and applications in areas like rapid prototyping, food, apparel, vehicles, firearms, medicine, bioprinting, space, and education are discussed. Current barriers to AM like scalability, resolution, material properties, and reliability are also presented
Dispersion Hardening:
Hard particles:
Mixed with matrix powder
Consolidated
Processed by powder metallurgy techniques
Second phase – Very little solubility (Even at elevated temp.)
No coherency
So thermally Stable at very high temp.
Resists :
Grain growth
Over aging
Recrystallization
Mobility of dislocation
Different from particle Metallic Composites (Volume Fraction is 3 to 4% max.) (Does not affect stiffness)
Examples : Al2O3 in Al or Cu, ThO2 in Ni
This document provides an introduction to fracture mechanics. It discusses different types of brittle and ductile fracture, modes of failure, energy release rate and crack resistance, crack growth, stress intensity factor, and the J-integral. It also mentions a case study on liberty ship failures and provides references for further reading. The key topics covered are the assumptions of fracture mechanics, using energy-based approaches like compliance and strain energy to analyze crack growth, and stress intensity factors which characterize how potent a crack is under different loading conditions.
A REVIEW ON GRAPHENE REINFORCED ALUMINIUM MATRIX COMPOSITEAnubhav Mahapatra
This document reviews graphene reinforced aluminium matrix composites prepared by spark plasma sintering. It discusses aluminium 7055 alloy and graphene materials, composite materials, the spark plasma sintering process, and applications. The scope is to study the effect of graphene reinforcement in aluminium and different fabrication processes. Spark plasma sintering allows for low-temperature, fast fabrication of composites with a strong interface between graphene and aluminium. Potential applications include satellites, automobiles, capacitors, and more. Further studies on mechanical and electrical properties are promising areas for future work.
1. There are five main theories of failure used to predict failure of machine components under multi-axial stresses: Rankine, Tresca, Saint Venant, Haigh, and Hencky-Von Mises.
2. Theories of failure are required because material strengths are determined from uni-axial tests, while actual components experience multi-axial stresses, and the theories relate uni-axial strengths to multi-axial stresses.
3. Rankine's theory applies to brittle materials and ductile materials under uniaxial or similar biaxial stresses, while Tresca's theory applies to ductile materials prone to shear failure.
Fatigue is important as it is the largest cause of failure in metals, estimated to comprise approximately 90% of all metallic failures; polymers and ceramics are also susceptible to this type of failure.
Mumbai University
Mechanical engineering
SEM III
Material Technology
Module 1.4
Strain Hardening:
Definition importance of strain hardening, Dislocation theory of strain hardening, Effect of strain hardening on engineering behaviour of materials, Recrystallization Annealing: stages of recrystallization annealing and factors affecting it
The document discusses plasticity theory and yield criteria. It introduces Hooke's law and its limitations under large strains. Generalized Hooke's law is presented for isotropic and anisotropic materials. Common stress-strain curves are shown including elastic-plastic and strain hardening responses. Several yield criteria are covered, including maximum principal stress, Tresca, and von Mises criteria. The von Mises criterion uses a second invariant of stress to predict yielding of ductile materials. An example compares predictions of yielding using Tresca and von Mises criteria for a given stress state in aluminum.
The document summarizes concepts related to fatigue in welded steel structures. It discusses the mechanism of fatigue failure, factors influencing fatigue behavior, effects of fatigue loading on structural members and weld connections, fatigue analysis methods including the S-N approach and fracture mechanics approach, Indian standard practices, techniques to improve fatigue strength, and conclusions.
This document provides an overview of fatigue in metals. It discusses stress cycles and the S-N curve used to represent fatigue data. The effects of mean stress, stress range, and stress concentration on fatigue properties are examined. Low cycle fatigue involving high strains is also covered. The document introduces approaches for assessing fatigue properties, including the cyclic stress-strain curve and fatigue crack growth resistance. Factors that influence fatigue such as temperature are also discussed.
Sintering is a process that uses heat to consolidate powder materials into a solid form without melting them. There are three main stages of sintering: initial bonding and neck formation between particles, densification and pore shrinkage, and final grain growth. The driving forces for sintering include reducing surface curvature, applied pressure, and chemical reactions. Key parameters that affect sintering include powder properties, consolidation method, firing temperature and atmosphere. The main mechanisms are surface, lattice, and grain boundary diffusion which allow atoms to migrate and bonds to form between powder particles over time.
This is a ppt which will give u a better understanding of fracture toughness of a material in short time. It also has great exposure to testing method that we do in our laboratory class in undergraduate courses. So good luck with slide.
This document discusses toughness and fracture toughness testing. It defines toughness as the energy absorbed by a material until fracture. Common toughness tests include the Charpy and Izod impact tests, which measure the energy absorbed during a high-velocity impact. However, these tests do not provide data needed for designing with cracks and flaws. Fracture toughness is a better property for design, as it indicates the stress required to propagate a preexisting flaw. The document outlines fracture toughness testing methods like compact tension and single edge notch bending specimens. It also discusses factors that influence fracture toughness values like material thickness, grain orientation, and plane strain versus plane stress conditions.
SLS is a rapid prototyping process that uses a laser to fuse powdered material like plastic, metal, or ceramic into a solid 3D object. A laser selectively fuses powdered material layer by layer based on a CAD model. The unfused powder acts as a support material and is removed after the build. SLS can produce parts with complex geometries from a variety of materials without the need for additional support structures.
This document provides an introduction to fracture mechanics from Ozen Engineering Inc. It discusses key fracture mechanics concepts like stress intensity factors, J-integrals, and cohesive zone modeling. It also outlines Ozen's fracture mechanics training sessions which will cover topics like linear elastic fracture mechanics analysis in ANSYS, extended finite element modeling, and fatigue crack propagation modeling.
This document provides an overview of fatigue failure. It begins by defining fatigue as the premature failure or lowering of strength of a material due to repetitive stresses, even if they are below the material's yield strength. It then discusses key topics in fatigue such as stress cycles, S-N curves, fatigue testing, and factors that affect fatigue life. Crack initiation and propagation stages are described. Methods for improving fatigue performance, such as shot peening and removing stress concentrators, are also covered.
Professor Bill Lee, Imperial College - Diversification in Advanced CeramicsCeramics 2011
The document discusses the Centre for Advanced Structural Ceramics (CASC) at Imperial College London and opportunities for industry collaboration. CASC works with UK academics and has partnerships with several companies. It provides funding, equipment, and expertise in ceramics research areas like bioceramics and materials for energy and defense. The center recently added new faculty and resources and holds meetings and training to support the UK ceramics community. Industry can join CASC's consortium for access to facilities and researchers or pursue other national and European funding.
Under Cabinet Lighting - Selection Guide from iLuXxiluxx
Selection Guide for Under Cabinet Lighting. It is the starting point for planning your project. Contains:
1- Selection criteria
2- Options available on the market
3. A review of each option
4- Solutions from www.iluxxinc.com
The document summarizes the Larson-Miller method for assessing the remaining life of tubes in a primary reformer. It describes how the method calculates average stress, determines the Larson-Miller parameter using temperature and time data, and estimates rupture time to determine remaining fraction of life. The example shows how operating periods are used to calculate life accumulated and remaining life. The method is intended for thin-walled seamless tubes but has uncertainties due to damage factors and assuming rupture only depends on stress and temperature.
The document discusses materials development for fusion applications. ITER, an international fusion project under construction in France, will test the use of stainless steel for components like the vacuum vessel. Beyond ITER, reduced activation ferritic/martensitic steels like Eurofer97 and oxide dispersion strengthened steels are being developed to withstand higher temperatures and radiation levels in future fusion power plants, though challenges around production, properties, and welding need further study.
dislocation-Deformation Mechanism Maps for Bulk Materials Chuchu Beera
This document discusses deformation mechanism maps, which display the relationship between stress, temperature, and strain rate to indicate the dominant deformation mechanism for a material under given conditions. Such maps are constructed through gathering experimental creep data and determining the material properties that describe the different creep mechanisms. The maps are refined iteratively by comparing data to theoretical rate equations until the best fit is achieved. As an example, deformation mechanisms in FCC metals are discussed, noting they generally creep at higher temperatures than BCC metals due to slower diffusion rates.
Metals are crystalline, malleable and ductile and glasses are amorphous, transparent,and brittle
The combination of both properties of metal and glass is known as metallic glasses
The document discusses various material properties including tensile strength, hardness, malleability, ductility, and brittleness. It then covers the classification of materials into ferrous materials like cast iron and various grades of steel, non-ferrous materials such as aluminum, copper, brass, tin, lead, and zinc, and non-metallic materials. For each material, the document outlines typical properties and common applications.
Corrosion of Metals and Prevention of CorrosionHiba Hibs
about corrosion of metals like copper , iron , silver with diagrams and also methods to prevent corrosion like alloying , chrome plating , galvanization etc.
Polymeric materials are formed by joining many small monomer units together through chemical reactions. They have properties like low density, good corrosion resistance, and mouldability. There are three main types of polymerization reactions: addition, copolymerization, and condensation. Polymeric materials can be formed into fibers, coatings, foams, and used as adhesives through various production techniques. Common polymers include polyethene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, nylon 6,6, and teflon.
Grain boundaries are interfaces that separate grains in crystalline solids. They form during crystallization as the solid material cools and individual crystal grains develop. Grain boundaries influence many material properties as they can impede dislocation movement and the diffusion of atoms.
Dual phase steels are microstructurally composed of 75-85% ferrite with the remainder being martensite, bainite, and retained austenite. They are processed through thermomechanical treatments to achieve better formability than ferrite-pearlite steels of similar strength. Dual phase steels work harden rapidly at low strains, have low yield strength but high ultimate tensile strength. They were initially developed in the 1960s but further improved in the 1970s for automotive applications requiring increased strength and fuel efficiency. Processing methods like continuous annealing, batch annealing, and as-rolled techniques are used to control the microstructure and resulting mechanical properties.
This document discusses polymeric materials used in organic solar cells. It explains that organic solar cells use organic polymers and small molecules to absorb light and transport charges. Common donor polymers mentioned include phthalocyanine and poly(3-hexylthiophene), while acceptor examples provided are perylene, perylene-3,4,9,10-tetracarboxylic dianhydride, phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester, and buckminsterfullerene. The document outlines the charge transfer process in organic solar cells and advantages of using polymeric materials, such as low cost and flexibility. Hazards and properties are also noted for some mentioned materials.
2.BH curve hysteresis in ferro ferrimagnetsNarayan Behera
The document discusses different types of magnetism including diamagnetism, paramagnetism, and ferromagnetism. It describes the B-H hysteresis curve method for measuring hysteresis loops using an AC inductance technique. The hysteresis loop provides information about magnetic properties like coercivity, remanence, and hysteresis losses. Domain theory is introduced to explain hysteresis in terms of irreversible domain wall motion within a ferromagnetic material.
The document discusses creep and stress rupture behavior of materials at high temperatures. It provides an introduction to creep and stress rupture tests, describing the three stages of creep curves and how applied stress and temperature affect creep behavior. Different deformation mechanisms at high temperatures are discussed, including dislocation glide/creep, diffusion creep, and grain boundary sliding. The document also covers topics such as structural changes during creep, superplasticity, and fracture modes at elevated temperatures.
Griffith proposed that brittle materials contain fine cracks that concentrate stress below the theoretical strength, causing fracture. When a crack propagates, the new surface area requires energy from the released elastic strain energy of the material. Griffith established that a crack will propagate when the decrease in elastic strain energy is equal to or greater than the energy required to create the new surface. The stress intensity factor describes the stress near a crack tip and is used to predict crack propagation. Fracture toughness is the material property describing a material's resistance to crack propagation.
High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels possess higher strength than conventional carbon steels through microalloying with elements like vanadium, niobium, and titanium. These alloys produce fine precipitates during cooling that strengthen the steel through mechanisms like grain refinement and precipitation strengthening. Common HSLA grades include ASTM A588 for weathering steel applications and ASTM A633 Grade E for its high yield strength and notch toughness at low temperatures. Vanadium-microalloyed steels gain strength from vanadium carbonitride precipitates while niobium is also effective at grain refinement. Proper control of variables like cooling rate and manganese content maximize the strengthening effect of these al
Fatigue occurs when a structure is subjected to fluctuating stresses from repeated loads, which can cause cracks to form and propagate even when stresses are much lower than the material's static strength. There are three main stages of fatigue: crack initiation at stress concentrators, incremental crack propagation, and rapid crack propagation once a critical crack size is reached. The total fatigue life consists of the number of cycles for crack initiation and propagation. Fatigue life depends on factors like stress range, structural detail, material properties, and environment. Design of structures against fatigue involves comparing stress ranges to the fatigue strength of detail categories according to EN 1993-1-9.
Component failure in road traffic accident by ayoub el amriAyoub Elamri
This document discusses various failure modes in materials including brittle versus ductile fracture, fatigue, creep, and stress concentration effects. It explains that brittle materials fracture with little deformation while ductile materials undergo extensive plastic deformation before fracturing. Fatigue failure can occur with fluctuating stresses and involves crack initiation and propagation. Creep is time-dependent deformation that increases with stress and temperature. Stress concentrators like defects and notches reduce a material's strength significantly and can initiate cracks. The document provides examples and diagrams to illustrate different failure mechanisms.
This document summarizes key concepts related to mechanical failure of materials. It discusses how cracks form and propagate, leading to brittle or ductile failure. Factors like stress concentration, loading rate, temperature and microstructure affect failure behavior. The main failure modes covered are fracture, fatigue and creep. Fracture toughness and impact testing help quantify a material's resistance to failure when cracks are present. The ductile to brittle transition temperature is also explained.
This document discusses various failure modes in materials including cracks, fracture, fatigue, and the ductile to brittle transition. It addresses how cracks form and propagate, how fracture resistance is quantified, and factors that influence failure such as loading rate, temperature, and stress concentration. Ductile fracture involves plastic deformation while brittle fracture does not. Fatigue failure can occur at stresses lower than the material strength from cyclic loading. The ductile to brittle transition temperature depends on the material. Fracture toughness measures resistance to crack propagation.
Fatigue is a type of failure that occurs in structures subjected to repeatedly applied loads, such as bridges and aircraft components. It can cause failure at stress levels lower than the material's static strength. Fatigue is responsible for approximately 90% of all metallic failures and occurs suddenly without warning. Fatigue failure is brittle-like and involves crack initiation and propagation. The fatigue behavior of materials is characterized by S-N curves, which relate the cyclic stress amplitude to the number of cycles to failure. Some materials exhibit a fatigue limit below which failure will not occur, while others do not have a fatigue limit. Surface treatments like shot peening can improve fatigue resistance by inducing compressive stresses near the surface.
The document discusses three main types of material failure: fatigue failure, failure under fluctuating stress, and creep failure. Fatigue failure occurs when a material breaks under cyclic stresses that are lower than the material's static load capacity. Creep failure happens at high temperatures over long periods of time due to constant stresses. The key factors that influence fatigue life and creep behavior include stress levels, temperature, surface quality, microstructure, and environment. Crack initiation and propagation play an important role in fatigue failure. Different creep mechanisms dominate depending on the material, stress levels, and temperature.
This PPT discusses Fatigue and Fracture mechanism, some history and problems. It has included on research paper. You can refer the literature review for further study of the topic.
The document discusses different failure modes of engineering materials including ductile fracture, brittle fracture, fatigue, creep, and impact fracture. It describes how ductile materials experience plastic deformation before fracturing while brittle materials fracture without plastic deformation. Fatigue occurs due to fluctuating stresses and is a major cause of failure in metals. Creep is the permanent deformation of materials under constant stress at high temperatures. Fracture mechanics examines how small flaws influence material strength.
Simulation of Critical Crack Length Propagation Using Fracture Mechanicsijceronline
The document discusses simulation of critical crack length propagation using fracture mechanics principles. It provides background on different types of material failures including buckling, ductile fracture, and brittle fracture. It then discusses fatigue failures and calculates critical crack length, strain amplitude, and mean stress for steel, aluminum, and epoxy materials using linear elastic fracture mechanics. The results show aluminum has the highest strength and life cycle while epoxy has the lowest. It concludes that mixing aluminum and epoxy could increase the life cycle of epoxy materials.
Creep is a time-dependent deformation of materials that occurs when they are subjected to high temperatures and/or constant stress over long periods of time. It involves the gradual deformation of materials as atoms slowly migrate and rearrange. Creep can lead to sudden fracture or impaired usefulness of structural components. The creep strength of a material represents the highest stress it can withstand over time without exceeding a specified creep strain. Creep behavior is determined through tests that apply different stress levels to specimens at constant temperature and measure the time to failure. Fatigue is the failure of materials caused by repetitive cyclic stresses, even if the stresses are below the yield strength. It can be quantified using an S-N curve, which plots the stress amplitude against the number
- Fatigue analysis aims to estimate the life of aircraft components under fluctuating cyclic loads.
- The stress-life (S-N) method relates the cyclic stress range to the number of cycles to failure and is commonly used. S-N curves are generated from testing and provide fatigue strength values.
- Stress concentrations around holes, notches, joints and other discontinuities significantly reduce the fatigue life of components and must be accounted for using stress concentration factors.
This document summarizes key concepts about mechanical failure from chapter 8, including:
1. It discusses different failure mechanisms like fracture, fatigue, creep, corrosion, and others. It also defines ductile and brittle fracture.
2. Fatigue failure is described as occurring in three stages - crack initiation, propagation, and final failure. It is influenced by factors like stress range and mean stress.
3. Fracture toughness is introduced as a material's resistance to brittle fracture when a crack is present. The influence of loading rate, temperature, and microstructure on failure stress is also covered.
The document summarizes key concepts related to failure of materials including the three main failure modes: fracture, fatigue, and creep. It defines fracture as failure due to crack propagation, fatigue as failure under cyclic loading even when maximum stresses are below the material's strength, and creep as progressive deformation under constant stress at elevated temperatures. The summary provides examples of each failure mode and discusses testing techniques like impact, fatigue, and creep tests used to characterize failure behavior. Fracture mechanics concepts like stress concentration and fracture toughness are also introduced for understanding crack propagation and designing against failure.
The document discusses mechanical failure and fracture in materials. It addresses how cracks form and propagate, leading to brittle or ductile fracture depending on the material. Stress concentration at crack tips is a key factor. Fracture toughness and impact testing methods are introduced to characterize a material's resistance to fracture. Fatigue failure from cyclic stresses often initiates at flaws and can occur at stresses below typical strength values. S-N curves relate the cyclic stress amplitude to the lifetime of a material. Temperature and loading conditions also influence failure behavior.
The document discusses various mechanical properties of metals including resilience, toughness, true stress and strain, hardening, fatigue failure, creep, and factor of safety.
Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy elastically. Toughness is the total energy absorbed before fracture. True stress and strain account for changes in cross-sectional area during deformation. Hardening occurs as yield strength increases with plastic deformation. Fatigue failure results from initiation and propagation of cracks under cyclic stresses. Creep is permanent deformation over time at high temperatures and stresses. Factor of safety determines a system's load-carrying capacity beyond the actual load.
This document summarizes aspects of fatigue and its finite element analysis. It discusses the stages of fatigue including crack initiation and growth. It also covers rate of crack propagation, stress-life methods, microstructural attributes, and life improvement techniques. Finite element analysis and fatigue simulation are performed in SolidWorks to analyze fatigue. The document provides an overview of research on fatigue from a materials science perspective.
- Fracture is the separation of an object into pieces due to stress. There are two main types: ductile fracture and brittle fracture.
- Ductile fracture involves plastic deformation and occurs through processes like necking and the formation and coalescence of microvoids. It results in a cup-and-cone pattern. Brittle fracture occurs suddenly without plastic deformation.
- Fracture mechanics studies how cracks propagate in materials. The Griffith theory and models like the Mohr-Coulomb criterion describe how stresses lead to fracture based on factors like crack size and material properties.
This presentation is by Flt Lt Dinesh Gupta, Associate Professor (Mechanical Engineering) NIET, Alwar (Rajasthan). It covers topic on Fluctuating Stresses related to Machine Design subject.
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3. 3
Objective
• The objective of this lecture is to explain the
phenomenon of fatigue and also to show how
Objective
resistance to fatigue failure depends on
Crack
Initiation microstructure.
S-N • For 27-302, Fall 2002: this slide set contains
curves
Cyclic
more material than can be covered in the time
stress-strn available. Slides that contain material over
Crack
Propagate
and above that expected for this course are
Microstr. marked “*”.
effects
Design
4. 4
References
• Mechanical Behavior of Materials (2000), T. H.
Courtney, McGraw-Hill, Boston.
Objective • Phase transformations in metals and alloys, D.A.
Crack Porter, & K.E. Easterling, Chapman & Hall.
Initiation
• Materials Principles & Practice, Butterworth
S-N
curves Heinemann, Edited by C. Newey & G. Weaver.
Cyclic • Mechanical Metallurgy, McGrawHill, G.E. Dieter, 3rd
stress-strn Ed.
Crack
Propagate • Light Alloys (1996), I.J. Polmear, Wiley, 3rd Ed.
Microstr. • Hull, D. and D. J. Bacon (1984). Introduction to
effects Dislocations. Oxford, UK, Pergamon.
Design
5. 5
σa := Alternating stress
σm := Mean stress Notation
R := Stress ratio
ε := strain
Nf := number of cycles to failure
A := Amplitude ratio
Objective ∆ εpl := Plastic strain amplitude
Crack ∆ εel := Elastic strain amplitude
Initiation K’ := Proportionality constant, cyclic stress-strain
S-N n’ := Exponent in cyclic stress-strain
curves c := Exponent in Coffin-Manson Eq.;
Cyclic also, crack length
stress-strn E := Young’s modulus
Crack b := exponent in Basquin Eq.
Propagate m := exponent in Paris Law
Microstr. K := Stress intensity
effects ∆ K := Stress intensity amplitude
Design a := crack length
6. 6
Fatigue
• Fatigue is the name given to failure in response to
alternating loads (as opposed to monotonic
Objective straining).
Crack • Instead of measuring the resistance to fatigue
Initiation
failure through an upper limit to strain (as in
S-N
curves ductility), the typical measure of fatigue resistance
Cyclic is expressed in terms of numbers of cycles to
stress-strn failure. For a given number of cycles (required in
Crack an application), sometimes the stress (that can be
Propagate
safely endured by the material) is specified.
Microstr.
effects
Design
7. 7
Fatigue: general characteristics
• Primary design criterion in rotating parts.
• Fatigue as a name for the phenomenon based on the
Objective notion of a material becoming “tired”, i.e. failing at
Crack less than its nominal strength.
Initiation
• Cyclical strain (stress) leads to fatigue failure.
S-N
curves • Occurs in metals and polymers but rarely in
Cyclic ceramics.
stress-strn • Also an issue for “static” parts, e.g. bridges.
Crack
Propagate • Cyclic loading stress limit<static stress capability.
Microstr.
effects
Design
8. 8
Fatigue: general characteristics
• Most applications of structural materials involve cyclic
loading; any net tensile stress leads to fatigue.
Objective • Fatigue failure surfaces have three characteristic
Crack features: [see next slide, also Courtney figs. 12.1, 12.2]
Initiation – A (near-)surface defect as the origin of the crack
S-N – Striations corresponding to slow, intermittent crack growth
curves
– Dull, fibrous brittle fracture surface (rapid growth).
Cyclic
stress-strn • Life of structural components generally limited by
Crack cyclic loading, not static strength.
Propagate
• Most environmental factors shorten life.
Microstr.
effects
Design
9. 9
S-N Curves
• S-N [stress-number of cycles to failure] curve defines
locus of cycles-to-failure for given cyclic stress.
Objective • Rotating-beam fatigue test is standard; also
Crack alternating tension-compression.
Initiation
• Plot stress versus the [Hertzberg]
S-N
curves log(number of cycles
Cyclic to failure), log(Nf).
stress-strn [see next slide,
Crack also Courtney figs. 12.8, 12.9]
Propagate • For frequencies < 200Hz,
Microstr. metals are insensitive to
effects
frequency; fatigue life in
Design
polymers is frequency
dependent.
10. 10
Fatigue testing, S-N curve
σmean 3 > σmean 2 > σmean 1
σa The greater the number of
cycles in the loading history,
Objective
σmean 1 the smaller the stress that
Crack
Initiation
σmean 2 the material can withstand
S-N
σmean 3 without failure.
curves log Nf
Cyclic
stress-strn Note the presence of a
Crack
Propagate fatigue limit in many
Microstr. steels and its absence
effects in aluminum alloys.
Design
[Dieter]
11. 11
Endurance Limits
• Some materials exhibit endurance limits, i.e.
a stress below which the life is infinite: [fig. 12.8]
Objective – Steels typically show an endurance limit, = 40% of
Crack yield; this is typically associated with the presence
Initiation of a solute (carbon, nitrogen) that pines
S-N dislocations and prevents dislocation motion at
curves small displacements or strains (which is apparent
Cyclic in an upper yield point).
stress-strn – Aluminum alloys do not show endurance limits;
Crack
Propagate this is related to the absence of dislocation-pinning
Microstr.
solutes.
effects • At large Nf, the lifetime is dominated by nucleation.
Design – Therefore strengthening the surface (shot peening) is
beneficial to delay crack nucleation and extend life.
14. 14
Fatigue Crack Propagation
• Crack Nucleation → stress intensification at crack tip.
Objective
• Stress intensity → crack propagation (growth);
Crack
Initiation
- stage I growth on shear planes (45° ),
S-N
strong influence of microstructure [Courtney: fig.12.3a]
curves - stage II growth normal to tensile load (90° )
Cyclic weak influence of microstructure [Courtney: fig.12.3b].
stress-strn • Crack propagation → catastrophic, or ductile failure
Crack
Propagate at crack length dependent on boundary conditions,
Microstr.
fracture toughness.
effects
Design
15. 15
Fatigue Crack Nucleation
• Flaws, cracks, voids can all act as crack nucleation
sites, especially at the surface.
Objective • Therefore, smooth surfaces increase the time to
Crack nucleation; notches, stress risers decrease fatigue
Initiation
life.
S-N
curves • Dislocation activity (slip) can also nucleate fatigue
Cyclic cracks.
stress-strn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
16. 16
Dislocation Slip Crack Nucleation
• Dislocation slip -> tendency to localize slip in bands.
[see slide 10, also Courtney fig. 12.3]
Objective • Persistent Slip Bands (PSB’s) characteristic of
Crack cyclic strains.
Initiation • Slip Bands -> extrusion at free surface. [see next slide
S-N for fig. from Murakami et al.]
curves
• Extrusions -> intrusions and crack nucleation.
Cyclic
stress-strn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
17. 17
Slip steps
and the
Objective stress-strain
Crack
Initiation loop
S-N
curves
Cyclic
stress-strn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
18. 18
Design Philosophy: Damage Tolerant
Design
• S-N (stress-cycles) curves = basic characterization.
• Old Design Philosophy = Infinite Life design: accept
Objective empirical information about fatigue life (S-N curves);
Crack apply a (large!) safety factor; retire components or
Initiation
assemblies at the pre-set life limit, e.g. Nf=107.
S-N
curves • *Crack Growth Rate characterization ->
Cyclic • *Modern Design Philosophy (Air Force, not Navy
stress-strn
carriers!) = Damage Tolerant design: accept
Crack
Propagate presence of cracks in components. Determine life
Microstr. based on prediction of crack growth rate.
effects
Design
19. 19
Definitions: Stress Ratios
• Alternating Stress
Objective • Mean stress ≡ σm = (σmax +σmin)/2.
Crack
Initiation
• Pure sine wave ≡ Mean stress=0.
S-N • Stress ratio ≡ R = σmax/σmin.
curves
Cyclic • For σm = 0, R=-1
stress-strn
Crack • Amplitude ratio ≡ A = (1-R)/(1+R).
Propagate
Microstr. • Statistical approach shows significant
effects
distribution in Nf for given stress.
Design
• See Courtney fig. 12.6; also following slide.
21. 21
Mean Stress
• Alternating stress ≡ σa = (σmax-σmin)/2.
• Raising the mean stress (σm) decreases Nf. [see slide 19,
Objective also Courtney fig. 12.9]
Crack • Various relations between R = 0 limit and the ultimate
Initiation (or yield) stress are known as Soderberg (linear to
S-N yield stress), Goodman (linear to ultimate) and
curves
Gerber (parabolic to ultimate). [Courtney, fig. 12.10, problem
Cyclic 12.3]
stress-strn
Crack
Propagate
endurance limit at zero mean stress
Microstr. σa
effects
Design
tensile strength
σmean
22. 22
Cyclic strain vs. cyclic stress
• Cyclic strain control complements cyclic
stress characterization: applicable to thermal
Objective
fatigue, or fixed displacement conditions.
Crack
Initiation • Cyclic stress-strain testing defined by a
S-N controlled strain range, ∆ εpl. [see next slide,
curves
Courtney, figs. 12.24,12.25]
Cyclic
stress-strn • Soft, annealed metals tend to harden;
Crack
Propagate
strengthened metals tend to soften.
Microstr. • Thus, many materials tend towards a fixed
effects
cycle, i.e. constant stress, strain amplitudes.
Design
23. 23
Cyclic stress-strain curve
Objective
Crack [Courtney]
Initiation
S-N
curves
Cyclic
stress-strn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects • Large number of cycles typically needed to reach
Design asymptotic hysteresis loop (~100).
• Softening or hardening possible. [fig. 12.26]
24. 24
Cyclic stress-strain
• Wavy-slip materials [Courtney]
generally reach
asymptote in cyclic stress-
Objective strain: planar slip
Crack materials (e.g. brass)
Initiation exhibit history
dependence.
S-N
curves • Cyclic stress-strain curve
defined by the extrema,
Cyclic
i.e. the “tips” of the
stress-strn
Crack hysteresis loops. [Courtney
fig. 12.27]
Propagate
• Cyclic stress-strain curves
Microstr.
tend to lie below those for
effects
monotonic tensile tests.
Design • Polymers tend to soften in
cyclic straining.
25. 25
Cyclic Strain Control
• Strain is a more logical independent variable
for characterization of fatigue. [fig. 12.11]
Objective
Crack
• Define an elastic strain range as ∆ εel = ∆σ/E.
Initiation
• Define a plastic strain range, ∆ εpl.
S-N
curves • Typically observe a change in slope between
Cyclic the elastic and plastic regimes. [fig. 12.12]
stress-strn
Crack • Low cycle fatigue (small Nf) dominated by
Propagate
Microstr. plastic strain: high cycle fatigue (large Nf)
effects dominated by elastic strain.
Design
26. 26
Strain control
of fatigue
Objective
Crack
Initiation
S-N [Courtney]
curves
Cyclic
stress-strn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
27. 27
Cyclic Strain control: low cycle
• Constitutive relation
for cyclic stress-strain:
Objective
Crack
• n’ ≈ 0.1-0.2
Initiation
• Fatigue life: Coffin Manson relation:
S-N
curves
Cyclic
• εf ~ true fracture strain; close to tensile
stress-strn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
ductility
effects • c ≈ -0.5 to -0.7
Design
• c = -1/(1+5n’ ); large n’ → longer life.
28. 28
Cyclic Strain control: high cycle
• For elastic-dominated strains
at high cycles, adapt
Objective
Crack
Basquin’s equation:
Initiation • Intercept on strain axis of extrapolated
S-N
curves
elastic line = σf/E.
Cyclic • High cycle = elastic strain control:
stress-strn
Crack slope (in elastic regime) = b = -n’ /
Propagate (1+5n’ ) [Courtney, fig. 12.13]
• The high cycle fatigue strength, σf,
Microstr.
effects
Design scales with the yield stress ⇒ high
strength good in high-cycle
30. 30
Total strain (plastic+elastic) life
• Low cycle = plastic control: slope = c
• Add the elastic and plastic strains.
Objective
Crack
Initiation
S-N
curves • Cross-over between elastic and plastic control is
Cyclic typically at Nf = 103 cycles.
stress-strn • Ductility useful for low-cycle; strength for high cycle
Crack
Propagate • Examples of Maraging steel for high cycle
Microstr. endurance, annealed 4340 for low cycle fatigue
effects strength.
Design
31. 31
Fatigue Crack Propagation
• Crack Length := a.
Number of cycles := N
Crack Growth Rate := da/dN
Objective Amplitude of Stress Intensity := ∆ K = ∆ σ√ c.
Crack • Define three stages of crack growth, I, II and III,
Initiation in a plot of da/dN versus ∆ K.
S-N • Stage II crack growth: application of linear elastic fracture
curves mechanics.
Cyclic • Can consider the crack growth rate to be related to the applied
stress-strn stress intensity.
Crack
• Crack growth rate somewhat insensitive to R (if R<0) in Stage II
Propagate
[fig. 12.16, 12.18b]
Microstr. • Environmental effects can be dramatic, e.g. H in Fe, in
effects
increasing crack growth rates.
Design
32. 32
Fatigue Crack Propagation
• Three stages of crack da/dN
growth, I, II and III.
• Stage I: transition to a
Objective finite crack growth rate
Crack from no propagation
I
∆Kc
Initiation below a threshold value
S-N
of ∆K. II
curves • Stage II: “power law”
dependence of crack III
Cyclic growth rate on ∆K.
stress-strn • Stage III: acceleration
Crack
of growth rate with ∆K,
Propagate
approaching
Microstr. catastrophic fracture.
effects
Design
∆Kth ∆K
33. 33
*Paris Law
• Paris Law:
Objective
Crack
• m ~ 3 (steel); m ~ 4 (aluminum).
Initiation
• Crack nucleation ignored!
S-N
curves • Threshold ~ Stage I
Cyclic
stress-strn • The threshold represents an endurance
Crack
Propagate
limit.
Microstr. • For ceramics, threshold is close to KIC.
effects
Design
• Crack growth rate increases with R (for
R>0). [fig. 12.18a]
34. 34
*Striations- mechanism
• Striations occur by development of slip bands
in each cycle, followed by tip blunting,
Objective
followed by closure.
Crack
Initiation • Can integrate the growth rate to obtain cycles
S-N as related to cyclic stress-strain behavior. [Eqs.
curves 12.6-12.8]
Cyclic
stress-strn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
35. 35
*Striations, contd.
• Provided that m>2 and α is constant, can integrate.
Objective
Crack
Initiation
S-N
curves • If the initial crack length is much less than the final
Cyclic length, c0<cf, then approximate thus:
stress-strn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design • Can use this to predict fatigue life based on known
crack
36. 36
*Damage Tolerant Design
• Calculate expected growth rates from dc/dN
data.
Objective
Crack
• Perform NDE on all flight-critical components.
Initiation • If crack is found, calculate the expected life of
S-N
curves
the component.
Cyclic • Replace, rebuild if too close to life limit.
stress-strn
Crack • Endurance limits.
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
37. 37
Geometrical effects
• Notches decrease fatigue life through stress
concentration.
Objective • Increasing specimen size lowers fatigue life.
Crack • Surface roughness lowers life, again through stress
Initiation concentration.
S-N • Moderate compressive stress at the surface
curves increases life (shot peening); it is harder to nucleate a
Cyclic crack when the local stress state opposes crack
stress-strn opening.
Crack
Propagate • Corrosive environment lowers life; corrosion either
Microstr. increases the rate at which material is removed from
effects the crack tip and/or it produces material on the crack
Design surfaces that forces the crack open (e.g. oxidation).
• Failure mechanisms
38. 38
Microstructure-Fatigue Relationships
• What are the important issues in microstructure-
fatigue relationships?
Objective • Answer: three major factors.
Crack 1: geometry of the specimen (previous slide); anything on the
Initiation surface that is a site of stress concentration will promote
S-N crack formation (shorten the time required for nucleation of
curves cracks).
Cyclic 2: defects in the material; anything inside the material that can
stress-strn reduce the stress and/or strain required to nucleate a crack
Crack (shorten the time required for nucleation of cracks).
Propagate
3: dislocation slip characteristics; if dislocation glide is confined
Microstr. to particular slip planes (called planar slip) then dislocations
effects
can pile up at any grain boundary or phase boundary. The
Design head of the pile-up is a stress concentration which can
initiate a crack.
39. 39
Microstructure affects Crack Nucleation
• The main effect of da/dN
microstructure (defects,
surface treatment, etc.)
Objective is almost all in the low
Crack stress intensity regime, I
i.e. Stage I. Defects,
Initiation
S-N
for example, make it II ∆Kc
easier to nucleate a
curves crack, which translates
into a lower threshold
III
Cyclic
stress-strn for crack propagation
Crack (∆ Kth).
Propagate • Microstructure also
Microstr. affects fracture
effects toughness and
therefore Stage III.
Design
∆Kth ∆K
40. 40
Defects in Materials
• Descriptions of defects in materials at the sophomore level
focuses, appropriately on intrinsic defects (vacancies,
dislocations). For the materials engineer, however, defects
Objective include extrinsic defects such as voids, inclusions, grain
Crack boundary films, and other types of undesirable second phases.
Initiation • Voids are introduced either by gas evolution in solidification or
by incomplete sintering in powder consolidation.
S-N
curves • Inclusions are second phases entrained in a material during
solidification. In metals, inclusions are generally oxides from the
Cyclic surface of the metal melt, or a slag.
stress-strn • Grain boundary films are common in ceramics as glassy
Crack
films from impurities.
Propagate
• In aluminum alloys, there is a hierachy of names for second
Microstr. phase particles; inclusions are unwanted oxides (e.g. Al2O3);
effects
dispersoids are intermetallic particles that, once precipitated,
Design are thermodynamically stable (e.g. AlFeSi compounds);
precipitates are intermetallic particles that can be dissolved or
precipiated depending on temperature (e.g. AlCu compounds).
41. 41
Metallurgical Control: fine particles
• Tendency to localization of flow is deleterious to the
initiation of fatigue cracks, e.g. Al-7050 with non-
Objective shearable vs. shearable precipitates (Stage I in a da/
Crack dN plot). Also Al-Cu-Mg with shearable precipitates
Initiation but non-shearable dispersoids, vs. only shearable
S-N ppts.
curves
Cyclic
stress-strn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
graph courtesy of J.
Design Staley, Alcoa
42. 42
Coarse particle effect on fatigue
• Inclusions nucleate cracks → cleanliness (w.r.t.
coarse particles) improves fatigue life, e.g. 7475
Objective improved by lower Fe+Si compared to 7075:
Crack 0.12Fe in 7475, compared to 0.5Fe in 7075;
Initiation 0.1Si in 7475, compared to 0.4Si in 7075.
S-N
curves
Cyclic
stress-strn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
graph courtesy of J.
Design Staley, Alcoa
43. 43
Alloy steel heat treatment
• Increasing hardness tends to raise the endurance
limit for high cycle fatigue. This is largely a function
Objective
of the resistance to fatigue crack formation (Stage I in
a plot of da/dN).
Crack
Initiation
S-N
curves Mobile solutes that pin
Cyclic dislocations → fatigue
stress-strn limit, e.g. carbon in steel
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
[Dieter]
44. 44
Casting porosity affects fatigue
Gravity cast
versus
Objective squeeze cast
[Polmear]
Crack versus
Initiation
wrought
S-N Al-7010
curves
Cyclic
stress-strn
Crack
Propagate
• Casting tends to result in porosity. Pores are effective sites for
Microstr. nucleation of fatigue cracks. Castings thus tend to have lower fatigue
effects resistance (as measured by S-N curves) than wrought materials.
Design • Casting technologies, such as squeeze casting, that reduce porosity
tend to eliminate this difference.
45. 45
Titanium alloys
[Polmear]
Objective
Crack
Initiation
S-N
curves
Cyclic
stress-strn
Crack • For many Ti alloys, the proportion of hcp (alpha) and bcc (beta) phases
Propagate depends strongly on the heat treatment. Cooling from the two-phase region
results in a two-phase structure, as Polmear’s example, 6.7a. Rapid cooling
Microstr. from above the transus in the single phase (beta) region results in a two-
effects phase microstructure with Widmanstä tten laths of (martensitic) alpha in a
beta matrix, 6.7b.
Design
• The fatigue properties of the two-phase structure are significantly better than
the Widmanstä tten structure (more resistance to fatigue crack formation).
• The alloy in this example is IM834, Ti-5.5Al-4Sn-4Zr-0.3Mo-1Nb-0.35Si-0.6C.
46. 46
*Design Considerations
• If crack growth rates are normalized by the elastic
modulus, then material dependence is mostly
Objective removed! [Courtney fig. 12.20]
Crack • Can distinguish between intrinsic fatigue [use Eq.
Initiation
12.4 for combined elastic, plastic strain range] for
S-N
curves
small crack sizes and extrinsic fatigue [use Eq. 12.6
for crack growth rate controlled] at longer crack
Cyclic
stress-strn lengths. [fig. 12.21….]
Crack • Inspection of design charts, fig. 12.22, shows that
Propagate
ceramics sensitive to crack propagation (high
Microstr.
effects
endurance limit in relation to fatigue threshold).
Design
47. 47
*Design Considerations: 2
• Metals show a higher fatigue threshold in
relation to their endurance limit. PMMA and
Objective
Mg are at the lower end of the toughness
Crack
Initiation range in their class. [Courtney fig. 12.22]
S-N • Also interesting to compare fracture
curves
toughness with fatigue threshold. [Courtney fig.
Cyclic
12.23]
stress-strn
Crack • Note that ceramics are almost on ratio=1 line,
Propagate
Microstr.
whereas metals tend to lie well below, i.e.
effects fatigue is more significant criterion.
Design
50. 50
*Variable Stress/Strain Histories
• When the stress/strain history is
stochastically varying, a rule for combining
Objective
portions of fatigue life is needed.
Crack
Initiation • Palmgren-Miner Rule is useful: ni is the
S-N number of cycles at each stress level, and Nfi
curves
Cyclic is the failure point for that stress.
stress-strn [Ex. Problem 12.2]
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design * Courtney’s Eq. 12.9 is confusing; he has Nf in the numerator also
51. 51
*Fatigue in Polymers
• Many differences from metals
• Cyclic stress-strain behavior often exhibits
Objective
Crack
softening; also affected by visco-elastic
Initiation effects; crazing in the tensile portion
S-N produces asymmetries, figs. 12.34, 12.25.
curves
Cyclic
• S-N curves exhibit three regions, with steeply
stress-strn decreasing region II, fig. 12.31.
Crack
Propagate • Nearness to Tg results in strong temperature
Microstr.
effects
sensitivity, fig. 12.42
Design
52. 52
Fatigue: summary
• Critical to practical use of structural materials.
• Fatigue affects most structural components,
Objective
Crack
even apparently statically loaded ones.
Initiation • Well characterized empirically.
S-N
curves • Connection between dislocation behavior and
Cyclic fatigue life offers exciting research
stress-strn
Crack
opportunities, i.e. physically based models
Propagate are lacking!
Microstr.
effects
Design