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Radiometric dating and carbon dating are two methods used to determine the age of rocks and fossils. Radiometric dating relies on measuring the decay of radioactive isotopes in rocks, while carbon dating can determine the age of recent fossils by measuring the decay of carbon-14. Studying the fossil record provides clues about evolution, as certain whale ancestors were found to have characteristics of land animals, such as ankle bones similar to artiodactyls, indicating whales evolved from land mammals over millions of years.
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Radiometric dating
Radiometric dating uses the decay of radioactive isotopes like carbon-14 and potassium-40 to date rock layers. Radioactive isotopes break down at a steady rate, allowing scientists to measure the amount remaining in a rock to determine its age by comparing it to the original amount. Different isotopes have different half-lives, such as 1.3 billion years for potassium-40 and 5,730 years for carbon-14, enabling the dating of rocks from thousands to billions of years old.
Index fossils
The document discusses methods scientists use to determine the relative and absolute ages of rocks, including the law of superposition and index fossils. The law of superposition states that in an undisturbed rock sequence, younger rocks will be above older rocks. Index fossils are fossils of organisms that existed for a short period of time, and can be used to compare the ages of different rock layers and help determine their relative ages.
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The document provides information about the age and formation of planet Earth. Scientists have determined through radioactive dating of meteorites and rocks that Earth is approximately 4.6 billion years old. They can measure the decay of radioactive elements like uranium to lead to determine the age of rocks and objects. The text then briefly discusses the changing nature of Earth over time, listing some key geographic features like continents, oceans, mountain ranges, and deserts. It notes that the human population has grown rapidly to over 7 billion and our footprint on the environment has expanded significantly since the development of agriculture thousands of years ago. Sustainability is discussed as important given these changes.
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Radiometric dating
Radiometric dating uses the decay of radioactive isotopes like carbon-14 and potassium-40 to date rock layers. Radioactive isotopes break down at a steady rate, allowing scientists to measure the amount remaining in a rock to determine its age by comparing it to the original amount. Different isotopes have different half-lives, such as 1.3 billion years for potassium-40 and 5,730 years for carbon-14, enabling the dating of rocks from thousands to billions of years old.
Index fossils
The document discusses methods scientists use to determine the relative and absolute ages of rocks, including the law of superposition and index fossils. The law of superposition states that in an undisturbed rock sequence, younger rocks will be above older rocks. Index fossils are fossils of organisms that existed for a short period of time, and can be used to compare the ages of different rock layers and help determine their relative ages.
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Four OB stars and a new massive early-B binary system were identified by detecting their infrared bowshock nebulae using data from the Wide Field Infrared Survey Explorer. Spectroscopic observations of the stars were conducted using the Wyoming Infrared Observatory 2.3 meter telescope. Spectral analysis revealed that the stars have spectral types of B1V, B2V, B5V, and B0V, and one system is a short-period binary. The identification of these massive runaway stars helps evaluate stellar mass loss and improve models of OB star evolution. Future work includes continued searches for more runaway stars and closer analysis of their properties.
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The document provides information about the age and formation of planet Earth. Scientists have determined through radioactive dating of meteorites and rocks that Earth is approximately 4.6 billion years old. They can measure the decay of radioactive elements like uranium to lead to determine the age of rocks and objects. The text then briefly discusses the changing nature of Earth over time, listing some key geographic features like continents, oceans, mountain ranges, and deserts. It notes that the human population has grown rapidly to over 7 billion and our footprint on the environment has expanded significantly since the development of agriculture thousands of years ago. Sustainability is discussed as important given these changes.
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2. The law of superposition states that undisturbed rock layers are oldest at the bottom and youngest at the top, allowing scientists to relatively date rock layers.
3. Index fossils, which are fossil organisms that existed for a short period of time, can be used to relatively date the rock layers they are found in.
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POPULATION
IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF POPULATION
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DEATH- Reduces the number of existing individuals in a population.
MIGRATION- Movement of individuals into or out of the population.
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EXPONENTIAL GROWTH- Capacity of a population to increase continuously without showing any signs of stabling or declining.
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LIMITING FACTORS
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EXTINCTION
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- Some asteroids even contain DNA and RNA components like guanine and adenine.
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2. The law of superposition states that undisturbed rock layers are oldest at the bottom and youngest at the top, allowing scientists to relatively date rock layers.
3. Index fossils, which are fossil organisms that existed for a short period of time, can be used to relatively date the rock layers they are found in.
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The document outlines the major geological time periods used to describe Earth's history. It divides time into eons, eras, and periods. The four eons are Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. The three main eras are Precambrian, Paleozoic, and Mesozoic, with the current era being the Cenozoic. Each era is further divided into periods characterized by characteristic organisms and geological events. The document also briefly describes some of the major transitions and events that occurred during these periods, such as the Cambrian explosion and age of dinosaurs.
Geological Time Scale
The document discusses the geological time scale, which is a system used by geologists and other earth scientists to describe events in Earth's history. It relates rock layers and the order in which they were formed to specific time periods. The geological time scale is constructed by studying rock strata and using principles like uniformitarianism, as well as fossils, artifacts, and other evidence found in the different layers to determine the relative and absolute ages of formations. It divides Earth's history into eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages at different timescales from hundreds of millions of years to millions of years.
Geologic time scale
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geologic time scale
The document discusses geological timescales and how fossils found in Grand Canyon National Park and Capitol Reef National Park in Utah provide evidence about periods of the Phanerozoic Eon. Specifically, it notes that during the Phanerozoic Eon the number of species with shells and skeletons dramatically increased, as did the total number of individual organisms, species, and average size of organisms preserved as fossils. The document also mentions a virtual field trip to these two national parks to see fossils from different periods in geological history.
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Chapter 13outlinept1
The document summarizes key aspects of Earth's history from the Precambrian era to the present. It discusses that the Precambrian encompassed 88% of geological time from 4.5 billion years ago to around 541 million years ago. Most Precambrian rocks are igneous or metamorphic and formed the cores of continents. Earth's early atmosphere contained gases like carbon dioxide, methane and ammonia with no oxygen. Over time, rainfall filled ocean basins and reduced these gases, leaving an oxygen-rich atmosphere.
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2. Young stars called protostars form at the centers of gas clouds through gravitational collapse. Stars spend most of their lives fusing hydrogen into helium in their cores through nuclear fusion, staying in hydrostatic equilibrium.
3. Massive stars over 8 solar masses die dramatically in supernova explosions, forging heavy elements. Less massive stars end as white dwarfs or neutron stars.
Geologic time scale
The document discusses the geologic time scale, which divides Earth's history into eons, eras, and periods based on changes in the fossil record found in different rock layers. Scientists use radiometric dating to determine the ages of each rock layer and develop a timeline of life on Earth from single-celled organisms in the Precambrian to mammals becoming dominant in the Cenozoic era.
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This PowerPoint was one very small part of my Ecology Interactions Unit from the website http://sciencepowerpoint.com/index.html .This unit includes a 3 part 2000+ Slide PowerPoint loaded with activities, project ideas, critical class notes (red slides), review opportunities, challenge questions with answers, 3 PowerPoint review games (125 slides each) and much more. A bundled homework package and detailed unit notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow.
Areas of Focus within The Ecology Interactions Unit: Levels of Biological Organization (Ecology), Parts of the Biosphere, Habitat, Ecological Niche, Types of Competition, Competitive Exclusion Theory, Animal Interactions, Food Webs, Predator Prey Relationships, Camouflage, Population Sampling, Abundance, Relative Abundance, Diversity, Mimicry, Batesian Mimicry, Mullerian Mimicry, Symbiosis, Parasitism, Mutualism, Commensalism, Plant and Animal Interactions, Coevolution, Animal Strategies to Eat Plants, Plant Defense Mechanisms, Exotic Species, Impacts of Invasive Exotic Species.
If you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thank you again and best wishes.
Sincerely,
Ryan Murphy M.Ed
www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
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Evolution is a central concept in biology that is influenced by geological and technological factors. A concept map shows evolution at the center, with biological, geological, and technological concepts branching off to show their relationship to evolution. In 3 sentences or less.
Zlsa powerpoint presentation
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Notes ch16
Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection based on observations he made during a 5-year voyage. He noticed that related species varied between locations and over time, suggesting descent from common ancestors. Darwin proposed that variations within species provided different adaptations for survival and reproduction, and that natural selection led populations to change over generations as favorable traits increased. His 1859 book On the Origin of Species outlined evolution based on struggle for existence, variation and adaptation, and survival of the fittest. Fossil, anatomical, embryological, and genetic evidence now provide strong support for evolution through natural selection.
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The document discusses Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It explains that Darwin observed variations within species that seemed to be advantageous for survival. Over generations, natural selection favored individuals with these beneficial variations, leading to evolution of new species. The document also provides several lines of evidence that support the theory, including fossils, anatomical similarities between organisms, and genetic and biochemical data. Mechanisms like mutation, genetic drift, and gene flow can drive evolution by altering the gene pool over time.
Coal Fired Power Plant in Indonesia
PLN is Indonesia's state-owned power company and sole provider of electricity. It relies heavily on coal-fired power plants, which currently contribute around 53% of total electricity generation. The presentation discussed PLN's coal power plants and future plans to develop more efficient supercritical plants. It also outlined Indonesia's abundant coal resources and its role as a major global coal exporter. Future fuel sources may include coal bed methane and coal slurry, while more advanced boiler technologies like supercritical, ultra-supercritical and circulating fluidized bed combustion are being considered.
Biodiversity and evolution
BIODIVERSITY AND EVOLUTION
POPULATION
IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF POPULATION
BIRTH- Natural process in which parents give rise to new offspring.
DEATH- Reduces the number of existing individuals in a population.
MIGRATION- Movement of individuals into or out of the population.
IMMIGRATION- Movement of individuals into the population.
EMIGRATION- Movement of individuals out of the population.
PATTERNS OF POPULATION GROWTH
BIOTIC POTENTIAL- Maximum reproductive capacity of an organism given that the resources are unlimited.
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH- Capacity of a population to increase continuously without showing any signs of stabling or declining.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT POPULATION GROWTH OR SIZE
LIMITING FACTORS
-control the growth, size, and distribution of organisms
COMPETITION
ABIOTIC FACTORS
PREDATOR-PREY RELATIOSHIP
POPULATION DENSITY
EXTINCTION
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Biodiversity powerpoint
Biodiversity refers to the variety of all life forms including plants, animals, microorganisms and their genes and ecosystems. It is important for human sustenance, health, well-being and enjoyment of life. However, biodiversity is threatened by habitat loss, invasive species, pollution, climate change and overconsumption. The loss of biodiversity can reduce ecosystem services and genetic diversity, compromising food security. Australia is taking steps to preserve biodiversity through programs, reserves, and acts aimed at conservation and education.
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Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth at all levels, from genes to ecosystems. High levels of biodiversity are important for ecosystem functioning and human well-being. However, biodiversity is being lost due to threats like habitat loss, overexploitation, pollution, and climate change. Conservation approaches include protected areas as well as international agreements like CITES and the Convention on Biological Diversity, which aim to protect threatened species and ecosystems.
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Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms on Earth, including genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. It is being threatened by habitat loss, pollution, and overexploitation of species. Key biodiversity hotspots that face serious threats are the Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas in India. Conservation efforts include protected areas like national parks and sanctuaries for in situ conservation and ex situ conservation in zoos and seed banks.
PPT OF BIODIVERSITY
This document provides an overview of biodiversity, including its definition, types, distribution, benefits, threats, and conservation. It discusses how biodiversity represents the variety of life on Earth and is vital to sustaining human life. The three types of biodiversity are genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. While biodiversity is threatened by habitat loss and other human impacts, conservation efforts aim to protect biodiversity through protected areas, restoration, and environmental policies.
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Carbon Dating-1.pptx
Carbon dating uses the radioactive isotope carbon-14 to determine the age of organic materials. The document outlines the history, principles, applications, and limitations of carbon dating. Specifically, it notes that carbon-14 is formed in the atmosphere and incorporated into living things, but after death the amount of carbon-14 decays at a known rate, allowing the age of a sample to be estimated by measuring its remaining carbon-14. Examples are given of carbon dating being used to determine the ages of artifacts such as ancient manuscripts, cave paintings, and archaeological sites.
Ii. e. history of the earth
This document discusses methods that geologists use to determine the age of rocks and develop the geologic timescale. It explains that relative dating uses principles like superposition and cross-cutting relationships to determine the relative order of formations, while absolute dating uses radioactive decay and half-lives to determine precise numerical ages. Examples of radiometric dating techniques are provided, such as carbon-14 dating and potassium-argon dating. The major eras and periods of the geologic timescale are also outlined, from the Precambrian Eon to the current Cenozoic Era.
Carbon Dating 2.pptx
Carbon dating determines the age of organic material by measuring the amount of carbon-14 remaining in the material. Carbon-14 is continually produced in the atmosphere and absorbed by plants and animals during life. After death, the amount of carbon-14 decreases steadily as it decays, allowing the age of once-living materials to be estimated by measuring the amount remaining. The half-life of carbon-14 is about 5730 years, so its levels are measured to calculate elapsed time since death. Carbon dating is widely used in archaeology and geology to estimate the age of ancient living things.
Carbon dating
This document discusses carbon dating and its uses in determining the age of once-living materials. Carbon dating works by measuring the amount of carbon-14 remaining in organic material. It has a half-life of about 5,730 years and can date materials up to 60,000 years old. Examples given where carbon dating has been applied include dating the Dead Sea Scrolls to 250-130 BC, determining the Shroud of Turin originated in the 13th century, and estimating meteorite exposure times on Earth. Archaeology also relies heavily on radiocarbon dating.
Chapter 16.3: Absolute Age Dating
Grade 8 Integrated Science Chapter 16 Lesson 3 on absolute age dating of fossils. This lesson follows the last lesson about relative age dating. This chapter describes radiometric age dating with explanations of radioactive decay and half-life. There is also a short explanation of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary age dating. The goal is that students understand radioactive decay, half-life, and how this can be used to determine the age of carbon fossils and different types of rocks.
Yes, we should be very suspicious of the bones authenticity. This .pdf
Yes, we should be very suspicious of the bone\'s authenticity. This is mainly because carbon
dating cannot be used to determine the age of dinosaur bones. Radiocarbon dating measures the
life of the isotope of carbon which is C-14. This isotope decays with time. The half life of C-14
isotope is around 5,730 years, so it can be effectively used to determine ages of samples of
around 50,000 years old and not of older samples. And dinosaur bones are around million years
old and their ages cannot be determined by Carbon dating. To determine ages of rock samples of
million years old, we can use radioactive dating of other isotopes that have a very long half-life.
Some of these isotopes are of Uranium (U-235 and U-238) and Potassium (K-40), which have
half-life of more than a million years but even these isotopes are not found in the bones of
dinosaurs or even in the sedimentary rocks containing these dinosaur bones. The dating of these
dinosaur fossils is therefore done in a much more complex way. We need to find igneous rocks
which are buried as deep as the sedimentary rocks containing dinosaur fossils. These igneous
rocks do contain uranium isotopes and their ages can be found by radioactive dating, and can
give a key to the ages of dinosaur bones. Thus, we can safely say that Carbon dating cannot be
used to date dinosaur bones.
One more reason to doubt the claims of the seller is that dinosaurs first appeared in the \"Triassic
period\", roughly 225 million years ago. So how could a dinosaur bone be 400 million years old.
Solution
Yes, we should be very suspicious of the bone\'s authenticity. This is mainly because carbon
dating cannot be used to determine the age of dinosaur bones. Radiocarbon dating measures the
life of the isotope of carbon which is C-14. This isotope decays with time. The half life of C-14
isotope is around 5,730 years, so it can be effectively used to determine ages of samples of
around 50,000 years old and not of older samples. And dinosaur bones are around million years
old and their ages cannot be determined by Carbon dating. To determine ages of rock samples of
million years old, we can use radioactive dating of other isotopes that have a very long half-life.
Some of these isotopes are of Uranium (U-235 and U-238) and Potassium (K-40), which have
half-life of more than a million years but even these isotopes are not found in the bones of
dinosaurs or even in the sedimentary rocks containing these dinosaur bones. The dating of these
dinosaur fossils is therefore done in a much more complex way. We need to find igneous rocks
which are buried as deep as the sedimentary rocks containing dinosaur fossils. These igneous
rocks do contain uranium isotopes and their ages can be found by radioactive dating, and can
give a key to the ages of dinosaur bones. Thus, we can safely say that Carbon dating cannot be
used to date dinosaur bones.
One more reason to doubt the claims of the seller is that dinosaurs first appeared in the \"Tr.
Guide to rock dating chap 4
This document provides an overview of methods used to evaluate and date the geological record of Earth's past. Key methods discussed include examining rock formations and fossils to understand past environmental conditions and organisms. The principles of relative dating, such as superposition and cross-cutting relationships, are used to determine the relative order of geological events. Absolute dating methods like radiometric dating use the decay of radioactive isotopes to measure the precise ages of rocks in millions to billions of years, establishing the geologic time scale.
Carbn1pp4
Carbon-14 dating is used to determine the age of biological artifacts up to around 50,000 years old by measuring the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in organic remains. Carbon-14 is created in the atmosphere and decays with a half-life of 5730 years, allowing the age of dead organisms to be estimated. While natural carbon-14 radiation poses little health risk, carbon-14 dating has limitations including potential atmospheric ratio fluctuations and contamination risks that can impact accuracy. However, it remains a vital dating method for archaeologists.
_'2.12,13 Geologic Time and Relative Ages ' .pptx
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Different Methods to study evolution.pptx
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Marine Fossils, In this PowerPointmarine, we will talk about fossils underwater and how it is related to all science subjects which are biology, and chemistry. physics, and computer science.
Archaeological Dating Techniques
This document discusses various archaeological dating techniques used to determine the age of artifacts and sites, including relative dating methods like stratigraphy, seriation, fluorine analysis, and pollen analysis. It also explains absolute dating techniques such as radiocarbon dating, potassium-argon dating, thermoluminescence, and dendrochronology. Relative techniques provide order of events but not specific dates, while absolute methods can determine calendar years through scientific analysis in a lab. Each technique has strengths and limitations for different archaeological materials and contexts.
9a. Geological Time (2)
Fossils provide evidence about Earth's history by allowing geologists to correlate and date sedimentary rock layers. Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of ancient plants and animals. Index fossils, which existed for short periods of time, are particularly useful for correlating rock layers between locations. By comparing fossil assemblages, geologists can match rock layers of the same age, even when exposed in different areas. For example, fossils found in the Grand Canyon's Redwall Limestone layer match fossils found in Indiana and Kentucky, indicating all were deposited at the same time approximately 350 million years ago. Radiometric dating techniques like potassium-argon dating also provide numerical dates for when igneous and metamorphic rocks formed
archaeologicaldatingtechniques-160209222623-170116023546.pptx
This document discusses various archaeological dating techniques used to date artifacts and sites, including relative dating methods like stratigraphy, seriation, typology, and fluorine analysis. It also discusses absolute dating methods such as radiocarbon dating, potassium-argon dating, thermoluminescence, and dendrochronology. Relative dating techniques provide the sequence or order of events but not specific dates, while absolute dating methods can provide calendar year dates within certain limitations and parameters. A variety of scientific principles and analyses are used with each technique.
Evidences for an old earth
The document discusses evidence that supports an old earth, including layers of sedimentary rock, plate tectonics, and radiometric dating techniques. It explains that radiometric dating determines an object's age by measuring radioactive isotopes and decay products. Carbon-14 dating works for objects up to 50,000 years old, while potassium-argon dating can date much older fossils by measuring the isotopes of potassium and argon. The document provides details on how these radiometric dating methods are used to scientifically date fossils and determine that the earth is older than young earth creationist accounts claim.
Absolute Dating Powerpoint.ppt
Scientists use two main methods to determine the age of rocks and fossils. Relative dating methods, like the law of superposition, allow geologists to determine if one rock layer is older or younger than another. Absolute or radiometric dating methods are used to determine a precise numerical age. Radiometric dating relies on the natural radioactive decay of isotopes like potassium-40 and uranium-238 to carbon-14. By measuring the ratio of radioactive parent isotopes to daughter isotopes in a sample, scientists can calculate the age of the rock or fossil in thousands or millions of years. This method has allowed scientists to determine that the age of the Earth is approximately 4.6 billion years old.
Absolute Dating Powerpoint.ppt
Scientists use two main methods to determine the age of rocks and fossils. Relative dating methods, like the law of superposition, allow geologists to determine if one rock layer is older or younger than another. Absolute or radiometric dating methods are used to determine a precise numerical age. Radiometric dating relies on the natural radioactive decay of isotopes like potassium-40 and uranium-238 to carbon-14. By measuring the ratio of radioactive parent isotopes to daughter isotopes in a sample, scientists can calculate the age of the rock or fossil in thousands or millions of years. This method has allowed scientists to determine that the age of the Earth is approximately 4.6 billion years old.
D3 human evolution
This document discusses human evolution and provides learning objectives related to dating methods, major anatomical features of primates, and trends in hominid evolution. It describes how radioactive dating of rocks and fossils can determine ages and discusses isotopes like carbon-14, potassium-40, and uranium that are used. Key anatomical primate features include grasping limbs and stereoscopic vision. Major hominid lineages discussed include Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, and various Homo species. The incompleteness of the fossil record results in uncertainties about the exact relationships between hominid species.
Review#9 earth's history
Geologists have developed a geologic history of Earth by sequencing past geologic events and determining the relative and absolute ages of fossils and rocks. Relative age refers to the age of a fossil or rock in comparison to another, while absolute age is the real age. Index fossils and volcanic ash, which are widespread and lived or occurred over short time periods, are used to determine relative ages. Radioactive dating determines absolute ages by measuring the decay of radioactive elements like carbon-14 and uranium-238, which have half-lives of 5,700 and 4.5 billion years respectively.
Radimatric dating112121123121242342134125125.ppt
This document discusses radiometric dating techniques used to determine the absolute ages of rocks, minerals, and fossils. It explains that radioactive elements decay at consistent rates, allowing scientists to measure the proportions of parent and daughter isotopes to calculate age. Examples are given of potassium-argon dating, uranium-lead dating, and radiocarbon dating, along with their applicable time ranges. The production of carbon-14 in the atmosphere and its incorporation into living things is also summarized.
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Yes, we should be very suspicious of the bones authenticity. This .pdf
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8.6
Common joint injuries include cartilage tears, ligament sprains, and dislocations. Cartilage tears can cause locking or binding of the joint and are repaired through arthroscopic surgery. Ligament sprains occur when ligaments are stretched or torn, and require immobilization or surgical repair. Dislocations involve bones being forced out of alignment, accompanied by sprains and inflammation.
Inflammatory and degenerative joint conditions include bursitis, tendonitis, and various forms of arthritis. Bursitis and tendonitis involve inflammation of the bursa and tendon sheaths, usually from overuse. Arthritis encompasses over 100 diseases that damage joints, with osteoarthritis being the most common and involving breakdown of cartilage
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Synovial joints have six general features including articular cartilage, a joint cavity, an articular capsule, synovial fluid, ligaments, and blood vessels. They allow movements like gliding, angular movements like flexion and extension, and rotation. Stability is influenced by factors like bone shape, ligaments, and muscle tone. There are six types of synovial joints classified by their shape and motion: plane, hinge, pivot, condylar, saddle, and ball-and-socket.
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Cartilaginous joints unite bones through cartilage and have little movement. There are two types: synchondroses unite bones through a hyaline cartilage plate and are immovable, examples include epiphyseal plates in children; symphyses unite bones through fibrocartilage and allow some movement, examples include intervertebral discs and the pubic symphysis.
8.2
Fibrous joints are immovable joints joined by dense connective tissue fibers. There are three types: sutures which are rigid interlocking skull joints that allow growth; syndesmoses where bones are connected by ligaments of varying fiber length, allowing some movement; and gomphoses which are peg-in-socket joints like teeth in sockets held by the periodontal ligament.
8.1
Joints are where two or more bones meet, giving mobility to the skeleton while holding it together. There are two main classifications of joints - structural and functional. Structurally, joints are classified into three types based on the material binding them and whether a cavity is present: fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial. The document will focus on the clearer structural classifications.
8.5 no vids
The document describes several synovial joints: the knee, shoulder, elbow, and hip. The knee is the largest and most complex joint, consisting of the femoropatellar joint and medial/lateral tibiofemoral joints. The shoulder has the most freedom of movement but lacks stability. The elbow acts as a hinge joint for flexion/extension. The hip is a ball-and-socket joint with the spherical femoral head fitting into the deep acetabulum.
8.5
The document describes several synovial joints, focusing on the knee, shoulder, and elbow joints. It provides details on:
- The knee joint is the largest and most complex joint, consisting of the femoropatellar joint and medial/lateral tibiofemoral joints. It allows flexion/extension and some rotation. Cruciate ligaments and menisci help stabilize the joint.
- The shoulder joint is the most freely moving but least stable joint, with a large humeral head fitting into a shallow glenoid cavity. Rotator cuff muscles and the long head of the biceps brachii provide stability.
- The elbow joint is a hinge joint formed by the tro
8.4
Synovial joints have six general features including articular cartilage, a joint cavity, an articular capsule, synovial fluid, ligaments, and blood vessels. They allow movements like gliding, angular movements like flexion and extension, and rotation. Stability is influenced by factors like bone shape, ligaments, and muscle tone. There are six types of synovial joints classified by their shape and motion: plane, hinge, pivot, condylar, saddle, and ball-and-socket.
6.7
Fractures occur when bones break. There are three classifications of fractures based on the position of bone ends, completeness of the break, and whether the skin is penetrated. Treatment involves realigning the broken bone ends through closed or open reduction and immobilizing the bone to heal. Bone repair occurs in four stages - hematoma formation, fibrocartilaginous callus formation, bony callus formation, and bone remodeling to reconstruct the original bone structure.
6.6
Bone remodeling occurs continuously as old bone is removed by osteoclasts and new bone is deposited by osteoblasts. Approximately 5-7% of bone mass is remodeled each week, with spongy bone being replaced about every 3-4 years and compact bone every 10 years. Bone remodeling is regulated by two control loops - hormonal control of blood calcium levels including PTH and calcitonin, and response to mechanical stress based on Wolff's law where bones remodel in response to stresses placed upon them.
6.5
Bone development occurs through two main processes: endochondral ossification and intramembranous ossification. Endochondral ossification forms bones below the skull through replacement of cartilage models with bone tissue in a multi-step process beginning in the second month of development. Intramembranous ossification forms some flat bones of the skull through the direct development of bone within fibrous membranes in mesenchymal tissue. Postnatal bone growth continues through adolescence via growth at the epiphyseal plates of long bones.
6.4
Bones have a complex structure at multiple levels:
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- Microscopic level shows bone is made of osteons containing concentric lamellae, with canals containing blood vessels. Bone cells like osteoblasts and osteoclasts are involved in formation and breakdown.
- Chemical level consists of collagen fibers mineralized with calcium salts to give bone its strength.
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The document discusses three major bone diseases: osteomalacia/rickets caused by vitamin D deficiency which results in soft, weak bones; osteoporosis where bone resorption exceeds formation leading to loss of bone mass and increased fracture risk, particularly in postmenopausal women; and Paget's disease where bone formation and resorption are excessive and disorganized. It also covers age-related changes to bone such as increased formation in childhood balancing resorption in adulthood, and declining bone density with age beginning in the fourth decade of life.
6.3
The document summarizes the classification of bones in the human skeleton. It is divided into two parts:
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2) Bones are also classified by their shape into four categories: long bones are longer than wide and found in the limbs, short bones are cube-shaped in the wrist and ankle, flat bones are thin and curved like those in the skull, and irregular bones have complicated shapes like the vertebrae and hip bones.
6.2
Bones have seven key functions: to provide support for the body and soft organs, protect vital organs like the brain and spinal cord, serve as levers for muscle movement, store minerals and growth factors like calcium and phosphorus, allow for blood cell formation in red bone marrow, store fat for energy, and help regulate hormones through the production of osteocalcin.
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16.4
- 1. Chapter 16 Evidence of Evolution Section 16.4
- 2. © Cengage Learning 2015 16.4 How Is The Age of Rocks and Fossils Measured? • Radiometric dating – The time it takes for half of the atoms in a sample of radioisotope to decay is called half-life – Can determine the age of rocks and fossils
- 3. © Cengage Learning 2015 How Is The Age of Rocks and Fossils Measured? (Cont’d.) • Carbon dating – Recent fossils that still contain carbon can be dated (carbon 14) • The half-life of 14C is 5,370 years • Most 14C in a fossil will have decayed after about 60,000 years • 14C in CO2 enters food chains through photosynthesis • Ratio of 14C to 12C is used to calculate how many half-lives passed since the organism died
- 4. © Cengage Learning 2015 How Is The Age of Rocks and Fossils Measured? (Cont’d.) • Finding a missing link – Fossil records holds clues to evolution: • Ancestors of whales probably walked on land • The skull and lower jaw have characteristics similar to those of ancient carnivorous land animals • With their artiodactyl-like ankle bones, Rodhocetus and Dorudon were probably offshoots of the artiodactyl-to-modern-whale lineage
- 5. © Cengage Learning 2015 How Is The Age of Rocks and Fossils Measured? (Cont’d.) A B C D ankle bones Rodhocetus antelope Figure 16.9 Ancient relatives of whales. The ancestor of whales and other cetaceans was an artiodactyl that walked on land. The lineage transitioned from life on land to life in water over millions of years, and as it did, the animals’ limb bones became smaller and smaller. Comparable hind limb bones are highlighted in blue.
Editor's Notes
- Figure 16.9 Ancient relatives of whales. The ancestor of whales and other cetaceans was an artiodactyl that walked on land. The lineage transitioned from life on land to life in water over millions of years, and as it did, the animals’ limb bones became smaller and smaller. Comparable hind limb bones are highlighted in blue.