Motivation refers to needs or desires that direct behavior toward goals. While humans have evolved general patterns of behavior through natural selection rather than instincts like other animals, we are motivated by various internal and external factors. Internally, we are motivated to fulfill basic needs like food and belonging through drives and hormones. Externally, incentives can appeal to our needs or trigger feelings to motivate our actions. Other motivations include achievement at work, sexuality, and the fundamental human need to belong to social groups. Personnel psychologists study these motivations to help organizations select, hire and place employees in jobs that match their strengths and motivations.
What is Sensation and perception? General Psychology discusses it's definition and I'ts differences. Credits To our Teacher: Professor Charmaine Maglangit for providing this powerpoint presentation.
What is Sensation and perception? General Psychology discusses it's definition and I'ts differences. Credits To our Teacher: Professor Charmaine Maglangit for providing this powerpoint presentation.
Social PsychologyWe cannot live for ourselves alone. Al.docxjensgosney
Social Psychology
We cannot live for ourselves alone. All of our lives are connected by a thousand invisible threads…..
What is Social PsychologySocial Psychology: The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
Social Psychologists: Explore the connections between people by scientifically studying how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
Attribution TheoryPeople usually attribute others’ behavior either to their internal dispositions or to their external situation (is the behavior due to the person’s situation or disposition).
A teacher may wonder if a child’s hostility reflects an aggressive personality or a reaction to stress or abuse.
Problem: Fundamental Attribution Error (overestimating the influence of personality and underestimating the influence of situations)
Republican vs. Democrat (people vs. society / Katrina)
Attitudes and ActionsAttitudes are feelings, based on our beliefs, that predispose our reactions to objects, people, and events.
If we believe someone is mean, we may feel dislike for the person and act unfriendly.
Attitudes Affect Action and Vice VersaOur attitudes often affect our actions.
Example of Attitude affecting Action:
Democratic leaders didn’t agree with President Bush’s decision to attack Iraq but voted in support of it anyway because of overwhelming public support for Bush.
Similarly, our actions often affect our attitudes.
Example of Action affecting Attitude:
Cult involvement (Brainwashing)
Initially you disagree but you become involved and feel acceptance based on the actions of the cult leaders and end up forming a positive opinion of the cult.
Foot-In-The-Door PhenomenonThe tendency for people who agree to a small action to comply later with a larger one.
To get people to agree to something big, start small and build.
A small thing makes the next one, although slightly larger, seem “not so bad” (i.e. stealing / gangs).
Works for good things, too (contributions).
Role playing affects attitude (you’re a parent/student now)
Zimbardo Experiment of 1972
Social InfluenceWhy do things like suicides and school violence (Columbine, etc.) come in groups?
Answer…Conformity and Obedience:
Behavior is contagious (yawn/traffic gawkers)
We are natural mimics (our attempt at feeling the way others do – this is how we learn empathy)
We’re happy around happy people and sad around sad people.
Group Pressure and ConformityDefinition of Conformity: Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
Conditions that strengthen conformity:
When you are made to feel incompetent/insecure
When a group has at least three people
When the group is unanimous
When one admires the group’s status
When others in the group observe one’s behavior
i.e. sorority
Why Do We Conform?Normative Social Influence:
We are sensitive to social norms – understood rules for accepted and expected behavior – because the price we pay for being d.
This chapter looks at how our motivations are emotionally directed and vice-versa. There is a discussion of eating disorders, sexual behavior, and the role of the amygdala.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Salas, V. (2024) "John of St. Thomas (Poinsot) on the Science of Sacred Theol...Studia Poinsotiana
I Introduction
II Subalternation and Theology
III Theology and Dogmatic Declarations
IV The Mixed Principles of Theology
V Virtual Revelation: The Unity of Theology
VI Theology as a Natural Science
VII Theology’s Certitude
VIII Conclusion
Notes
Bibliography
All the contents are fully attributable to the author, Doctor Victor Salas. Should you wish to get this text republished, get in touch with the author or the editorial committee of the Studia Poinsotiana. Insofar as possible, we will be happy to broker your contact.
DERIVATION OF MODIFIED BERNOULLI EQUATION WITH VISCOUS EFFECTS AND TERMINAL V...Wasswaderrick3
In this book, we use conservation of energy techniques on a fluid element to derive the Modified Bernoulli equation of flow with viscous or friction effects. We derive the general equation of flow/ velocity and then from this we derive the Pouiselle flow equation, the transition flow equation and the turbulent flow equation. In the situations where there are no viscous effects , the equation reduces to the Bernoulli equation. From experimental results, we are able to include other terms in the Bernoulli equation. We also look at cases where pressure gradients exist. We use the Modified Bernoulli equation to derive equations of flow rate for pipes of different cross sectional areas connected together. We also extend our techniques of energy conservation to a sphere falling in a viscous medium under the effect of gravity. We demonstrate Stokes equation of terminal velocity and turbulent flow equation. We look at a way of calculating the time taken for a body to fall in a viscous medium. We also look at the general equation of terminal velocity.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Toxic effects of heavy metals : Lead and Arsenicsanjana502982
Heavy metals are naturally occuring metallic chemical elements that have relatively high density, and are toxic at even low concentrations. All toxic metals are termed as heavy metals irrespective of their atomic mass and density, eg. arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, thallium, chromium, etc.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
2. For example, Aron Ralston
found the motivation to cut off
his own arm when trapped on a
cliff in Utah in 2003.
What motivated him to do this?
Hunger? The drive to survive?
Motivation
Motivation refers to a
need or desire that
energizes behavior and
directs it towards a
goal.
3. Do Instincts Direct Human Behavior?
An instinct is a fixed (rigid and predictable) pattern of
behavior that is not acquired by learning and is likely
to be rooted in genes and the body.
Instinctual
nesting
Human
“nesting”
behavior
4. Instincts Evolutionary Perspective
Other species have genetically
programmed instincts
“motivating” their actions.
Do humans?
Human babies show certain
reflexes, but in general, our
behavior is less prescribed by
genetics than other animals.
We may, however, have general
patterns of behavior which can be
explained as emerging through
natural selection.
Instinct theory has given way to
evolutionary theory in explaining
human behavior.
5. A drive is an aroused/tense state related to a physical
need such as hunger or thirst.
Drive-reduction theory refers to the idea that humans
are motivated to reduce these drives, such as eating to
reduce the feeling of hunger. This restores
homeostasis, a steady internal state.
Drive Reduction
6. Drives “Push” and Incentives “Pull”
Drives are based
on inner needs
and can be seen
as a force
“pushing” from
inside of us.
Incentives are
external stimuli
that either
appeal to our
needs or trigger
our aversive
feelings, and can
be used to “pull”
us in our
actions.
For example:
we have a drive to have food, or money we can exchange for
food.
employers can use the prospect of a raise in (or elimination
of) salary as an incentive for us to follow employer goals and
policies.
7. Hierarchy of
Needs/Motives
In 1943, Abraham
Maslow proposed
that humans
strive to ensure
that basic needs
are satisfied
before they find
motivation to
pursue goals that
are higher on this
hierarchy.
8. Receptors throughout the digestive system monitor levels
of glucose and send signals to the hypothalamus in the
brain.
The Hypothalamus and Hunger
The
hypothalamus
then can send
out appetite-
stimulating
hormones, and
later, after
eating,
appetite-
suppressing
hormones.
9. How much do we eat?
Eating depends in part on
situational influences. Social facilitation: the
presence of others
accentuates our typical
eating habits
Unit bias: we may eat only
one serving/unit (scoop,
plateful, bun-full) of food,
but will eat more if the
serving size is larger
Buffet effect: we eat more
if more options are
available
10. Regulating Weight
When a person’s weight drops or
increases, the body responds by
adjusting hunger and energy use
to bring weight back to its initial
stable amount.
Most mammals, without
consciously regulating, have a
stable weight to which they keep
returning. This is also known as
their set point.
A person’s set point might rise
with age, or change with
economic or cultural conditions.
Therefore, this “set point” of
stable weight is more of a
current but temporary “settling
point.”
11. Variations from the Norm of Body
Weight
In some cases, the set
point of a person’s body
weight drifts from a
healthy weight.
Psychological disorders of
eating can override this
set point, ignore
biological signals, and
lead to extreme weight
loss.
In other cases, the set
point seems to drift
upward. Biological
tendencies can lead to
increased weight that is
hard to lose, leading to
obesity.
12. How does obesity develop,
and why is it hard to change?
It was adaptive for our
ancestors to crave energy-rich
food when available.
Problem: energy-rich ‘junk’
food is now easily available,
and cheaper than healthy food
It is adaptive to slow down our
burning of fat when food is
scarce.
Problem: in poverty or in
crash diets, our body can slow
down weight loss
Obesity and Weight
Control
Physiology of Obesity
Once a person is obese,
losing weight is not so
easy as “just eating less.”
Fat has a lower
metabolic rate then other
tissue, so a person might
gain weight when eating
“normally.”
Eating less to lose
weight slows metabolism.
This prevents weight loss,
and ensures weight gain
when returning to a
normal diet.
Even if weight loss
succeeds, a formerly
obese person will have to
eat less than an average
person just to prevent
weight gain.
13. Hormones and Sexual Motivation
Sexual motivation may have evolved
to enable creatures to pass on their
genes. Sexual desire and response is
not as tied to hormone levels in
humans as it is in animals.
During ovulation, women show a rise
in estrogen and also in testosterone.
As this happens, sexual desire rises
in women and also in the men around
them (whose testosterone level rises).
Low levels of testosterone can
reduce sexual motivation.
14. Imagined Stimuli
The brain is involved in
sexuality; people with no
genital sensation (e.g. spinal
cord injuries) can feel sexual
desire.
The brain also contains
dreams, memories, and
fantasies that stimulate
sexual desire.
Fantasies are not just a
replacement for sexual
activity; they often
accompany sex.
The Effect of External Stimuli
All effects of external stimuli on
sexual behavior are more
common in men than in women.
The short-term effect of
exposure to images of nudity
and sexuality increases sexual
arousal and desire.
Possible dangers include:
the distortion of our ideas of
what is appropriate and
effective for mutual sexual
satisfaction.
the habit of finding sexual
response through idealized
images may lead to decreased
sexual response to real-life
sexual partners.
15. Origins of Sexual Orientation
Theories suggesting that
sexual preference is related
to parenting behaviors or
childhood abuse are not
supported by evidence.
Differences appear to begin
at birth. This could be genetic,
or it could be caused by
exposure to hormones or
antigens in the womb.
The fraternal birth order
effect: being born after a
brother increases the
likelihood of being gay.
Cause or Effect?
The brain and other
differences in sexual
orientation
Heterosexual men have a
certain cell cluster in the
hypothalamus that, on
average, is larger than in
gay men and in women.
Gay men are more likely
than straight men to be
poets, fiction writers,
artists, and musicians.
16. Genetics and Homosexuality
In fruit flies, a difference in one gene
determined sexual orientation and behavior.
Homosexuality seems to run in families and
among identical twins, but still emerges
spontaneously, even in one of a pair of twins.
Genes related to homosexuality could be
passed on by siblings or by people not living
exclusively according to their sexual
orientation.
Homosexuality and Gender
Hormones that affect gender may also affect sexual orientation.
In mammals, female fetuses exposed to extra testosterone, and
male fetuses exposed to low levels of testosterone, often grow
up with:
bodies, brains, and faces with traits of the opposite sex.
the sexual attraction expected of the opposite sex to one’s
own sex.
17. Another Motivation: “To Belong”
What do people need
besides food and sex?
Aristotle: friends
Alfred Adler: community
In Middle English, to be
wretched [wrecche] means
to “be without kin nearby”
Roy Baumeister, Mark
Leary, and Abraham
Maslow:
“To Belong.” Belonging refers to being
connected to others; part of
a group or family or
community.
19. Balancing Bonding with Other Needs
The need to bond with others
is so strong that we can feel
lost without close
relationships.
However, we also seem to
need autonomy and a sense
of personal
competence/efficacy.
There a tension between “me”
and “us,” but these goals can
work together.
Belonging builds self-esteem,
and prepares us for confident
autonomy.
20. The Need to Belong Leads to:
loyalty to friends,
teams, groups, and
families.
However, the need to
belong also leads to:
• changing our
appearance to win
acceptance.
• staying in abusive
relationships.
• joining gangs,
nationalist groups, and
violent organizations.
21. Social Networking =
Social Connection?
Connecting online can be
seen as taking turns
reading brief words about
each other, or as an
experience of connection
and/or belonging.
Portrayal of one’s self
online is often close to
one’s actual sense of self.
Use of social networking
can become a compulsion,
sacrificing face-to-face
interaction and in-depth
conversation.
22. Another Area of Motivation: Work
Why do we work…only for money and other incentives?
The income from work can indirectly satisfy the drive for food
and shelter.
Some are driven by achievement motivation.
In rare cases, the goals and activities of work can feel like a
calling, a fulfilling and socially useful activity. Some people may
seek the optimal work experience called “flow.”
feeling purposefully
engaged, deeply
immersed, and
challenged
“The best moments in our lives are not
the passive, receptive, relaxing times …
the best moments usually occur when a
person’s body or mind is stretched to its
limits in a voluntary effort to accomplish
something difficult and worthwhile.”
From Flow, by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
25. Strengths refer to enduring
qualities that can be
productively applied.
Personnel psychologists
such as Mary Tenopyr have
done research to find which
strengths predict success at
various jobs.
This research can be used
to develop procedures for
selecting applicants that
have the right strengths for
a job.
Selecting, Hiring and
Placing Employees
Personnel psychologists can
help find the right person
for the right job. This
involves:
analyzing the content of
the job to be filled.
developing tools and
procedures for assessing
potential employees, and
for selecting the ones that
fit the job.
helping to optimize worker
placement and promotion.
Which employees
will do the job
well?
26. How do we select the right applicants?
To get the information which would
predict future job performance,
personnel psychologists recommend:
Still, employers rely on an informal
interview to get a “feel” for the
applicant.
Interviewers overestimate their ability to
“read” people because of four errors:
1.valuing intentions rather than habits.
2.neglecting to recall bad “reads” such as
past interviewees who failed or quit.
3.seeing interview behavior as a
predictor of job behavior.
4.using prejudgments to interpret
interviewee behavior.
aptitude tests
job knowledge
tests
work samples
past job
performance
The
interviewer
illusion/
fallacy
27. Maximizing worker motivation,
satisfaction, and productivity
Understanding organizational
structures and dynamics
Facilitating organizational change
Improving teamwork and leadership
Organizational Psychology
Organizational
psychology:
studying and
consulting about
how worker
productivity and
motivation is
affected by
different patterns
of worker-
management
engagement,
leadership, and
teamwork
Goals of Organizational
Psychology Research
28. 28
Grit:
Motivation to Achieve
and Self-Discipline to
Succeed
Organizational psychologists
work in part to maximize
motivation and put it to use for
employers.
Success in careers and
organizations may be caused in
part by people with grit, who
stick to a goal when others
would have quit.
Grit refers to a combination
of desire for achievement
and the ability/willingness to
persist at hard work.
Achievement in most fields of
work may seem like a function of
talent; however, Thomas Edison
noted that, “genius is 1 percent
inspiration, 99 percent
perspiration.”
Talent itself can be a result of
perseverance. According to the
“ten year rule,” it takes about
ten years of hard work to
become a skilled expert in a field.
Success in work is predicted
more by self-discipline than by
intelligence test scores.
29. Satisfaction & Engagement
Because a happy worker is a productive worker,
organizational psychologists study factors related to
employee satisfaction, such as whether a worker:
feels that they personally matter to the organization
and to other people.
feels a sense that effort pays off in the quality of the
work and in rewards such as salary and benefits.
Employees who are
satisfied in an organization
are likely to stay longer.
Employees who are more
engaged (connected,
passionate, and energetic)
get more work done.
30. Many employees are engaged
(connected, passionate, and
energetic about the
companies/organizations they
work for).
Some are not engaged; they
show up and get tasks done
but show little passion or
energy.
Others are actively
disengaged; they are
unhappy, alienated, and not
invested, even undermining
what people are trying to
accomplish.
Employee Engagement: Three Levels
Organizational
psychologists find that
people are most engaged in
work when they:
know what is expected of
them.
have the materials they
need to do the work.
have opportunities to
excel.
feel fulfilled.
feel part of something
important.
have opportunities to
grow/develop in the job.
31. Human Factors: Work that Fits People
The psychology of human factors:
taking the design of the body and the
functioning of the mind into account
when designing products and
processes.
Editor's Notes
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The drive to survive might seem more obvious, but see if students can guess why the drive to reproduce is listed here. Ralston, after thinking he had no way to survive, had a dream of a one-armed man picking up a young boy. Maybe this stirred up his desire to live to be a father someday. [His first child, Leo, was born in 2010.]
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Humans may have a general nesting “instinct,” but the specific behavior is less predictable. The bird can only build one kind of nest, but humans may decorate a baby’s room in a variety of ways, or use this general “instinct” to simply buy and repair a home.
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Instructor: the buffet effect (not an official term; I just made it up here) can be explained in evolutionary terms. See if students can guess or recall from the reading that our ancestors stored fat and nutrients during bountiful times, when more variety was available. For example, humans prepared for possible winter famines in early fall when more kinds of plants were bearing fruit and animals were storing fat.
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Instructor: I have added this introduction to the next topic to put it in context. Eating disorders used to be in this chapter and have been moved to the “Psychological Disorders” chapter, but I felt that an acknowledgement of them here would help show how these topics relate. Students may bring them up anyway, or at least may be interested in debating the relative role in obesity of biology, psychological factors, culture, and the idea that it’s just about choosing to eat more or less.
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Instructor: if you decide to keep the word “poverty” in the last bullet point on the left, you can prompt students by saying, “and when food is available to people in poverty living in neighborhoods with easy access only to convenient stores, what food is most easily and cheaply available?”
This is why people in poverty might be obese but it may not be a sign that they are “spoiled” or do not have a problem with adequate income.
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A comment implied in the text about these two examples: non-sexual differences between gay and straight men could be biological but could also be a function of the social experience of being gay in this society.
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Abusive relationships typically undermine our autonomy and our sense of self-efficacy/competence. Ironically, this makes us less likely to leave an abusive relationship.
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Regarding the face-to-face interaction: I suggest pointing out here that something called “Facebook” may have reduced our exposure to both faces and books.
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Interviewer illusion/fallacy: You can ask students, “which common human thinking error does this slide topic remind you of?”
The concept that “Interviewers overestimate their ability...” is a classic case of the overconfidence error.
“How about error #2 above?” [Students might say the availability heuristic, hindsight bias, or confirmation bias, any of which could be justified (the availability heuristic fits best).
Error #3 is a type of error they probably haven’t learned about yet. It is known as the fundamental attribution error, that is, seeing the interviewee’s friendly behavior as a sign of his/her personality rather than as a function of the situation.
Error #4 is simply prejudice; if you like the interviewee, you may see an error as a sign of humility rather than as a disqualification.
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Implication: this topic is in the organizational psychology section, but it can apply also to hiring decisions. Employers, when hiring, should look for “grit”, that is, an applicant’s evidence of self-discipline and motivation, more than current level of expertise.
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With some items, such as “feeling fulfilled,” it is not clear whether items on this list cause engagement, or vice versa, or whether engagement and fulfillment are two parts of the same experience.
This measuring cup adjusts for a human factor.
When we hold a cup by the handle, our eyes are above the cup, so it’s hard to read the scales on the side. How does this cup adjust to the human factor?