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The document discusses different types of logical relationships between categorical propositions: 1) Contraries are propositions that cannot both be true but could both be false, with one being necessarily false if the other is true. 2) Subcontraries are propositions that cannot both be false but could both be true, with one being necessarily true if the other is false. 3) Contradictories are propositions that cannot both be true or both be false. It also discusses inferences that can be drawn between categorical propositions, including subalternation, obversion, conversion, and contraposition.
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Please Note
The examples of fallacies are given in italics.
The explanations are in plain text.
You are welcome to go online to look for more examples.
You will be tested on these fallacies.
There is a practice quiz at the end.
Informal Fallacies
Informal Fallacies are errors in informal or casual reasoning.
They are often committed in casual conversation.
But you can also find them in the media.
People are often unaware that they are committing an informal fallacy.
Committing an informal fallacy often reveals what our reality and value assumptions are.
#1 Fallacy of Composition
When the attribute of an individual or part of something is attributed to the whole or group.
The cells in my body are round; therefore my body is round.
False. The attribute of a cell (roundness) cannot be attributed to what those cells make up, i.e., the body.
The cup holder in my car is made of plastic; therefore, my car is made of plastic.
#2 Fallacy of Division
The opposite of the fallacy of composition.
The idea that an attribute of the whole can be applied to the individual parts of that whole.
Drexel is an old university; therefore, all the professors are old.
False. The attribute of the whole (Drexel is old) cannot be applied to what makes up Drexel (for example, the professors).
The earth is round; therefore, all earthlings are round.
#3 Circular Reasoning
When the conclusion you arrive at is actually already present in your premises (the ideas you believe support your conclusion).
It appears as if you are repeating yourself.
There’s only survival of the fittest because only the fittest survive.
What the Bible says is true because the Bible is true (or because the Bible says so).
#4 Loaded Question
When you ask someone a question to which there is no good answer and the other person cannot extricate themselves
Have you stopped beating your wife yet?
If you says yes, you are still beating your wife.
If you say no, it means you admit to once beating your wife.
There is no way to win.
Are you stoned or stupid?
These are usually rhetorical questions.
#5 Naturalistic Fallacy
That because something is the case in nature it ought to be the case, usually among humans.
This is taking a reality assumption and converting it into a value assumption.
Swans are monogamous; therefore, humans should be monogamous.
Bonobos are promiscuous; therefore, humans should be promiscuous.
Fish swim; therefore, humans should swim.
#6 cum hoc ergo propter hoc
Also known as “correlation = causation”
However, correlation does not equal causation
Children who wear big shoes also have good handwriting. Therefore, wearing big shoes causes good handwriting.
No, wearing big shoes does NOT cause good handwriting. These things are merely correlated.
This is how superstitions can start.
Because I wore those red socks, I hit the home run. Those are my lucky red socks.
#7 Fallacy of Accident.
Phil115 1 Intro
The document provides an overview of critical reasoning and the philosophy course. It discusses:
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2) The basic laws of logic like modus ponens and modus tollens, and how they dictate valid inferences using sentence letters.
3) What constitutes an argument, including premises, conclusions, and how to recognize arguments by looking for conclusion and premise indicators.
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1.5 Argument Forms Proving Invalidity
Course lecture I developed over section 1.5 of Patrick Hurley\'s "A Concise Introduction to Logic".
Valid and sound Argument (disclaimer)
This document discusses the concepts of validity, soundness, inductive and deductive arguments. It provides examples of valid and invalid arguments. The key points are:
- Inductive arguments cite evidence to reasonably support a conclusion, while deductive arguments aim to conclusively establish a thesis.
- An argument is valid if the conclusion must be true if the premises are true, regardless of whether the premises and conclusion are actually true.
- An argument is sound if it is valid and all premises are true, making the conclusion necessarily true.
- Examples are used to illustrate valid versus invalid argument forms and how to identify the patterns that determine validity.
Square of opposition
The document discusses different types of propositional logic operations including conversion, obversion, and contraposition. It defines each operation, provides examples of how to apply the rules to different proposition forms like A, E, I, and O propositions, and illustrates the steps to derive the converse, obverse, or contrapositive of a given proposition.
Common grammatical errors II Part III II
This document provides examples of common grammar mistakes and how to correctly use certain grammatical structures in writing. It discusses the proper use of comparative words, pronouns, commas, possessive nouns, prepositions like "to" and "too", and other words that are often confused like "peek/peak/pique", "who/that", "into/in to", "assure/ensure/insure", and "less/fewer". For each case, it gives incorrect and correct examples to illustrate the proper grammar rules.
Logic
This document discusses the concepts of logic, reasons for belief, and argument structure. It defines valid and sound arguments, and provides examples to illustrate identifying premises and conclusions, and determining if arguments are valid or sound. The key aspects covered are: the difference between valid and sound arguments; identifying premises and conclusions; and a process for analyzing arguments by checking for validity and truth of premises.
Logic arguments and_fallacies
This document defines and discusses different types of arguments and logical fallacies. It begins by defining deductive and inductive arguments, and explaining how to identify them based on language used. Common types of deductive and inductive arguments are then outlined. The document also discusses the concepts of validity, soundness, and strength as they relate to arguments. Finally, it provides detailed descriptions and examples of many common logical fallacies, categorizing them as fallacies of relevance, weak induction, ambiguity, analogy, or formal fallacies.
Paradox
This document discusses several famous paradoxes throughout history:
1) Paradoxes involve statements that seem self-contradictory or absurd, such as whether an all-powerful God can create a rock too heavy to lift.
2) Examples include Zeno's paradox of never reaching point B due to always being halfway there, and the grandfather paradox of changing one's own past.
3) The liar paradox questions whether a statement claiming to be a lie is true or false, leading to logical contradictions either way.
4) Finally, Russell's paradox examines the statement "This statement is false" and finds it cannot be consistently assigned a truth value.
How to Make an Argument
This lesson gives the basics of how to make an argument. It has lots of examples and fun pictures for students. It is
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