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This document provides details about typical cross-sections of roads and highways, including pavement surfaces and drainage elements. It discusses the importance of friction between wheels and pavement, pavement smoothness, light reflection characteristics, and drainage. It also describes typical layers in flexible pavements like seal coats, surface courses, binder courses, and subgrades. Finally, it outlines other cross-section elements such as shoulders, medians, footpaths, barriers, and bus bays.

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Introduction to the components of road and highway drainage in transportation engineering.

Four key aspects: friction, smoothness, light reflection, and drainage impact driving safety.Pavement unevenness' adverse effects: costs, comfort, fuel, and safety, measured by unevenness index.

Importance of road surface visibility and glare, depending on road color and material conditions.

Pavement must prevent water seepage and effectively drain water, with an appropriate geometry.

Key cross-section elements: right of way, carriageway, camber, kerbs, margins, and shoulders.

Right of way dimensions depend on road type: 2-lane (46m), 4-lane (76m), and 8-lane (91m) standards.

Specifications for lanes: combined width and lane counts are based on traffic volume and service level.

Shoulders must accommodate vehicle support, emergencies, roadside facilities, and improve sight distance.

Camber is crucial for drainage; IRC recommends specific values for different surface types and rain intensities.

Kerbs delineate road edges, control drainage, and serve various practical purposes in road safety.

Medians separate traffic flow; widths range from 1.2 to 2.4 meters depending on the road design.

Footpaths enhance urban mobility, recommended widths are at least 1.5 meters for safety.

Designated lanes ensure safety for bicycles and accommodate on-street parking in urban areas.

Guard rails prevent accidents at embankments, improve visibility on curves for safer driving conditions.

Bus-bays should minimize impact on traffic, ideally set away from intersections by at least 75 meters.

Introduction to highway pavement construction and materials used to support roadway structures.

Highway pavement layers distribute loads effectively while ensuring smooth travel under various conditions.

Flexible pavements characterized by layered designs that transmit loads through granular point contacts.

Details on pavement layers: seal coat, surface course, tack coat, binder, base, and sub-base functions.

Desirable subgrade soil properties ensure stability, drainage, and support for highway pavement structures.

Tests to evaluate subgrade support through shear, bearing, and penetration tests are essential.

CBR test method evaluates soil-subgrade quality for flexible pavement, defines resistance against penetration.

Desirable properties of aggregates include strength, adhesion with bitumen, and durability assessment methods.

Various tests ensure aggregates' suitability, including crushing, abrasion, and impact resistance evaluations.

Bitumen serves as the main binder in pavement due to its adhesive and waterproof properties in construction.

Tests measure bitumen quality, including penetration, ductility, viscosity, and flash points for safety.

Durability, flexibility, and workability standards in mix design ensure the performance of asphalt pavements.

Introduction to alarming statistics on road accidents and their economic impact globally.Identifies human, vehicle, road condition, design, and environmental factors contributing to accidents.

'3-Es' strategy: Engineering, Enforcement, and Education aimed at improving safety and reducing accidents.

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Elements of a Typical Cross-section of Road and Highway drainage Transportation Engineering – I Subrat Kumar Padhy
Pavement surface characteristics • For safe and comfortable driving four aspects of the pavement surface are important. • It includes :- – Friction between the wheels and the pavement surface. – Smoothness of the road surface – The light reflection characteristics of road. – Drainage of water.
Friction between the wheels and the pavement surface. • It is a crucial factor in the design of horizontal curves. • It affects the acceleration and deceleration ability of vehicles • Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping of vehicles. – Skidding happens when the path traveled along the road surface is more than the circumferential movement of the wheels due to friction. – Slip occurs when the wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along the road
• Various factors that affect friction are: – Type of the pavement (like bituminous, concrete, or gravel), – Condition of the pavement (dry or wet, hot or cold, etc), – Condition of the tyre (new or old), and – Speed and load of the vehicle. • The frictional totally depends upon a factor called the coefficient of friction and denoted as f. – IRC suggests the coefficient of longitudinal friction as 0.35-0.4 useful in sight distance calculation. – Coefficient of lateral friction as 0.15 useful in horizontal curve design Friction between the wheels and the pavement surface.
Pavement Unevenness • Even if a road is constructed with high quality pavers, it is possible to develop unevenness due to pavement failures. • Unevenness affects the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety, fuel consumption and wear and tear of tyres. • Pavement Unevenness is measured in terms of Unevenness index. • Unevenness index is a measure of unevenness which is the cumulative measure of vertical undulations of the pavement surface recorded per unit horizontal length of the road. • An unevenness index value – Less than 1500 mm/km - good – Less than 2500 mm/km - satisfactory – Greater than 3200 mm/km - uncomfortable even for speed of 55 kmph.
Pavement Unevenness
Light refection characteristics • It is necessary that the road surface should be visible at night and reflection of light from the road surface should be less. • White roads have good visibility at night, but caused glare during day time. • Black roads has no glare during day, but has poor visibility at night • Concrete roads has better visibility and less glare. • Wet pavement surface can cause high glare. – Glare is difficulty seeing in the presence bright light such as direct or reflected sunlight or artificial light such as car headlights at night.
Light refection characteristics
Drainage • The pavement surface should be absolutely impermeable to prevent seepage of water into the pavement layers. • Further, both the geometry and texture of pavement surface should be such that it drain out all the water from the surface in less time. • Drains should be provided on one side or both side of the road pavement
Typical Road Cross-Section Kerb
Cross-Section Elements The cross section of a road includes some or all of the following elements: – Right of way. – Carriage way – Camber or cross slope. – Kerbs – Road margins. • Shoulders • Parking lanes • Bus-bays • Service roads. • Footpath. • Guard rails
Right of Way • Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its alignment. • It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the highway and may reasonably provide for future development. • The width of right of way is governed by: – Width of formation of road. – Height of embankment or depth of cutting – Side slopes of embankment or cutting – Drainage system – Sight distance considerations – Reserve land for future widening • According to IRC normal width of ROW – For 2 lane road = 150 ft width of area (46m) – For 4 lane road = 250 ft width of area (76m) – For 8 lane road = 300 ft width of area (91m)
Right of Way
Traveled Way or Carriage Way • The portion of the roadway provided for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of shoulders. • Number of lanes on a traveled way are decided on the basis of expected traffic volumes and appropriate level of service required for the facility. • Width of a lane depends on the width of the vehicle and the clearance needed. • According to IRC – Minimum of lane width of 3.75 m - Single lane road. – Two lane road require minimum of 3.5 meter for each lane total 7m for both lane.
Carriage Way Width
Road Way • The portion of a highway provided for vehicular use. • It includes both carriageway and shoulders.
Shoulders • Shoulders are the strips provided on both sides of the carriage way. • A minimum width of 2.5 m is recommended for 2- lane highways in India. (max 4.5m)
Functions of shoulders • accommodation of stopped vehicles (disabled vehicles, bus stops) • emergency use • lateral support for the pavement • space for roadside facilities • space for bicycles and pedestrians • driving comfort (freedom from strain) • improvement in sight distance • improvement in capacity
Camber • Camber is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse direction to drain off rain water from road surface. • Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. • Camber is measured in 1 in n or n% (Eg. 1 in 50 or 2%) • The objectives of providing camber are: – Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads – Sub-grade protection by proper drainage. – Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety.
Types of Camber
IRC Values for camber Surface type Heavy rain Light rain Concrete/Bituminous 2 % 1.7 % Gravel/WBM 3 % 2.5 % Earthen 4 % 3.0 %
Kerb • It is the dividing line between carriageway and footpath.
Types of Kerbs • Low or mountable kerbs: – Height of 10 cm above the pavement edge. – With a slope which allows the vehicle to climb over easily • Semi-barrier type kerbs – Height is 15 cm above the pavement edge. – parking vehicles, but at emergency only. • Barrier type kerbs. – Height of 20 cm above the pavement edge – With a steep slope. • Submerged kerb. – Provide lateral stability
Types of Kerbs
Functions of Kerbs • Drainage control • Roadway edge delineation • Right-of-way reduction • Delineation of pedestrian walkways • Reduction in maintenance operation • Assistance in roadside development
Median or Traffic Separators • It is the physical or painted separation provided on divided highways between two adjacent roadways. • Medians can also be used to isolate slow and fast moving traffic in the same direction. • Width of medians ranges from 1.2 to 2.4 m.
Median
Foot Path or side Walk • Foot paths are provided in Urban roads • These are raised strips constructed along both the edges of roads. • Their minimum recommended width is 1.5 m.
Foot Path or side Walk
Foot Path or side Walk
Bicycle and Parking lane • Bicycle lane is a portion of the roadway designated by striping, signing, and/or pavement markings for preferential or exclusive use by bicycles and/or other non-motorized vehicles. • Parking lane is an additional lane provided on Urban roads and streets for on-street parking.
Bicycle and Parking lane Minimum Width Requirements
Bicycle and Parking lane
Traffic Barriers or Guard rails • They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an embankment. • They serve to prevent the vehicles from running o the embankment, especially when the height exceeds 3 m. • Guard rails of stones painted in alternate black and white are usually used. • They also give better visibility of curves at night under headlights of vehicles.
Traffic Barriers
Traffic Barriers
Bus-bays • Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. • They are provided so that they do not obstruct the movement of vehicles in the carriage way. • They should be at least 75 meters away from the intersection so that the traffic near the intersections is not affected by the bus-bay.
Bus-bays
HIGHWAY MATERAILS
Pavements  Highway pavement is a structure consistingHighway pavement is a structure consisting layers of processed materials above thelayers of processed materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primarynatural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehiclefunction is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade.loads to the sub-grade.  The pavement structure should be able toThe pavement structure should be able to provide a surface with adequate skidprovide a surface with adequate skid resistance, favourable light reflectingresistance, favourable light reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution.characteristics, and low noise pollution.  Two types of pavements • Flexible pavements • Rigid pavements.
Types Of Pavements
Types Of Pavements
Flexible Pavements  Flexible pavements normally has many layers. Hence, the design of flexible pavement uses the concept of layered system.  Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure
Flexible Pavements
Typical layers of a flexible pavement  Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes • Seal coat • Surface course • Tack coat • Binder course • Prime coat • Base course • Sub-base course • Compacted sub-grade • Natural sub-grade
Sealcoat  Sealcoat is a liquid that is applied to asphalt to protect it from oxidation and the damage caused by winter cracking, as well as UV rays and traffic.  In areas of the world that experience freezing and thawing, this special coat is applied.
Surface course  Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains superior quality materials.  They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete(AC).  It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying layers.
Tack coat  It is a thin coating of tar or asphalt applied before a roads surface course is laid to form an adhesive bond.  It must be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.
Binder course  In asphaltic concrete paving, an intermediate course between the base course and the surfacing material is present called binder course.  It consists of intermediate-size aggregate bound by bituminous material.
Prime coat Prime coat is an application of a low viscosity asphalt to a granular base in preparation for an initial layer (or surface course layer) of asphalt. It is generally • Provide adhesion between the base course and succeeding asphalt course. • It penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface. After applying the prime coat, it must cure for a minimum of 48-72 hours before asphalt is placed, with no rain in the forecast
Prime coat
Base course  The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder course.  It provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage  It may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials.
Base course
Sub-Base course  The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course  primary functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade.  A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a high quality materials, In such situations, sub- base course may not be provided.
Sub-Base course
Sub grade soil  The supporting soil beneath pavement and its special under courses is called sub grade.  Undisturbed soil beneath the pavement is called natural sub grade.  Compacted sub grade is the soil compacted by controlled movement of heavy compactors.
Desirable properties  The desirable properties of sub grade soil as a highway material are • Stability • Incompressibility • Permanency of strength • Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather and ground water • Good drainage • Ease of compaction
Soil Types  The wide range of soil types available as highway construction materials have made it obligatory on the part of the highway engineer to identify and classify different soils.  Broadly, the soil types can be categorized as Laterite soil, Moorum/red soil, Sandy soil, Alluvial soil, Clay including Black cotton soil.
Soil Types  Gravel: These are coarse materials with particle size under 2.36 mm with little or no fines contributing to cohesion of materials.  Moorum: These are products of decomposition and weathering of the pavement rock. Visually these are similar to gravel except presence of higher content of fines.  Sand : Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt.  Silts: These are finer than sand, brighter in color as compared to clay, exhibit little cohesion and show dilatancy.  Clays: These are finer than silts. Clayey soils exhibit stickiness, high strength when dry, and show no dilatancy. • Black cotton soil and other expansive clays exhibit swelling and shrinkage properties. Paste of clay with water when rubbed in between fingers leaves stain, which is not observed for silts.
Soil Types
Tests on sub-grade soil  The main function of the sub grade is to give adequate support to the pavement.  For this the sub grade should possess sufficient stability under adverse climatic and loading conditions. Therefore, it is very essential to evaluate the sub grade by conducting tests.  The tests used to evaluate the strength properties of soils are of 3 types. • Shear tests • Bearing tests • Penetration tests
Direct Shear Test CONCEPT The Direct Shear Test is used for determination of the consolidated drained (or undrained) shear strength of soils. The test is performed by deforming a specimen at a controlled rate on or near a single shear plane. DESCRIPTION AND PROCEDURE The soil sample is placed in a cubic shear box composed of a upper and lower box. The limit between the two parts of the box is approximately at the mid height of the sample. The sample is subjected to a controlled normal stress and the upper part of the sample is pulled laterally at a controlled strain rate or until the sample fails. The applied lateral load and the induced strain are recorded at given internals. These measurements are then used to plot the stress-strain curve of the sample during the loading for the given normal stress.
Direct Shear Test
Plate Bearing Test CONCEPT In plate bearing test, a compressive stress is applied to the soil or pavement layer through rigid plates relatively large size and the defections are measured for various stress values. The plate-bearing test was originally meant to find the modulus of sub grade reaction. DESCRIPTION AND PROCEDURE The setup consists of • Plates of 75,60,45 and 30 cm diameter. • Proving ring arrangement. • Hydraulic jack • Reaction frame • Datum frame loaded with dial gauges.
Plate Bearing Test DESCRIPTION AND PROCEDURE  Modulus of sub grade reaction • It can be defined as the pressure sustained per unit deformation of subgrade soil at a specified pressure level. • It is directly calculated as the load imposed upon the plate(75 cm) to achieve a deflection of 1.25mm. • This give a value in N/mm2/mm or N/mm3.  Test Procedure. • The test site is prepared and loose material is removed so that the 75 cm diameter plate rests horizontally in full contact with the soil sub-grade.
Plate Bearing Test  Test Procedure. • a seating load is applied and released after a few seconds and the settlement dial gauge is now set corresponding to zero load. • A load is applied by means of jack and the load and settlement dial readings are noted. • The load is increased until a deflection of 1.25mm is achieved. • The average of three or four settlement dial readings is taken as the settlement of the plate corresponding to the applied load.  Calculation • A graph is plotted with the mean settlement versus bearing pressure.
Plate Bearing Test
California Bearing Ratio Test DESCRIPTION AND PROCEDURE California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was developed by the California Division of Highway as a method of classifying and evaluating soil-sub grade and base course materials for flexible pavements. It is a penetration test wherein a standard piston, having a 50 mm diameter is used to penetrate the soil at a standard rate of 1.25 mm/minute. The penetration at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetrations is taken as the bearing value. The ratio to the bearing value of the soil sample and standard crushed rock is termed as the CBR. In most cases, CBR decreases as the penetration increases. The CBR is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of standard plunger under controlled density and moisture conditions
California Bearing Ratio Test Test Procedure The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould 150 mm diameter with a base plate and a collar, a loading frame and dial gauges for measuring the penetration values and the expansion on soaking. The specimen in the mould is soaked in water for four days and the swelling and water absorption values are noted. The mould and the assembly is placed under the plunger of the loading frame. Load is applied on the sample by a standard plunger with dia of 50 mm at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. A load penetration curve is drawn. The load values on standard crushed stones are 1370 kg and 2055 kg at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetrations respectively. CBR value is expressed as a percentage of the actual load causing the penetrations of 2.5 mm or 5.0 mm to the standard loads mentioned above.
California Bearing Ratio Test CALCULATION
California Bearing Ratio Test
Aggregates Aggregate is a collective term for the mineral materials such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone that are used in the construction of a pavement. DESIRABLE PROPERTIES  Strength  Hardness  Toughness  Shape of aggregates  Adhesion with bitumen  Durability  Freedom from deleterious particles
Aggregates tests To decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following tests are carried out. Crushing test  Abrasion test  Impact test  Soundness test  Shape test  Specific gravity and water absorption test  Bitumen adhesion test
Aggregate Crushing Test  This test is used to determine the crushing strength of aggregates  The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under gradually applied crushing load. Test Procedure  Dry aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieves and retained 10 mm sieves are taken as test sample.  The test sample is weighed and placed in the test cylinder of 11.5 mm diameter and 18 cm height in three layers each layer being tampered 25 times.  The specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied at the rate of 4 tones per minute.  Then crushed aggregates are then sieved through 2.36 mm sieve and weight of passing material (W2) is expressed as percentage of the weight of the total sample (W1) which is the aggregate crushing value.
Aggregate Crushing Test CALCULATION Aggregate crushing value = (W2/W1) x 100. A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above 35 would normally be regarded as weak aggregates.
Abrasion test DESCRIPTION AND PROCEDURE Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether they are suitable for different pavement construction works. Los Angeles abrasion test is a preferred one for carrying out the hardness property and has been standardized in India. The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.
Abrasion test Test Procedure Los Angeles machine consists of Circular drum • internal diameter 700 mm • length 520 An abrasive charge (cast iron spherical balls) • 48 mm diameters • weight 340-445 g Charge is placed in the cylinder along with the aggregates. The quantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and usually ranges from 5-10 kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of 500 -1000 revolutions. After this, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and passed fraction is expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value is called Los Angeles abrasion value.
Abrasion test CALCULATION Los Angeles abrasion value= (W2/W1) x 100 • W1= weight of test sample initially taken. • W2= weight of test sample that passed through 2.36 mm sieve A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for WBM base course in Indian conditions.
Abrasion test
Impact test DESCRIPTION AND PROCEDURE The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates. Test Procedure Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel cup of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing machine. The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 number of blows. Metal hammer of weight 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 and 15 number of blows are given. The crushed aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. The impact value is measured as percentage of aggregates passing sieve (W2) to the total weight of the sample (W1).
Impact test CALCULATION Los Angeles abrasion value= (W2/W1) x 100 • W1= weight of test sample initially taken. • W2= weight of test sample that passed through 2.36 mm sieve For bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value is 35 percent. For Water bound macadam base courses the maximum permissible value defined by IRC is 40 percent.
Impact test
Pavement materials: Bitumen  Bituminous materials or asphalts are extensively used for roadway construction, primarily because of their excellent binding characteristics and water proofing properties and relatively low cost.  Bitumen is the residue or by-product when the crude petroleum is refined
Different forms of bitumen  Cutback bitumen- Normal practice is to heat bitumen to reduce its viscosity. In cutback bitumen suitable solvent is used to lower the viscosity of the bitumen.  Bitumen Emulsion-Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which bitumen is suspended in a finely divided condition in an aqueous medium and stabilized by suitable material.  Bituminous primers- Bitumen Primer is a locally manufactured bitumen solution suitable for sealing and priming porous and non-porous surfaces.  Modified Bitumen-Certain additives or blend of additives called as bitumen modifiers can improve properties of Bitumen and bituminous mixes. Bitumen treated with these modifiers is known as modified bitumen.
Tests on bitumen 1. Penetration test 2. Ductility test 3. Softening point test 4. Specific gravity test 5. Viscosity test 6. Flash and Fire point test 7. Float test 8. Water content test 9. Loss on heating test
Penetration test  It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in tenths of a millimeter to which a standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in 5 seconds.  The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight of 100g.  The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly and poured into container  A grade of 40/50 bitumen means the penetration value is in the range 40 to 50 at standard test conditions.
Ductility test  Ductility is the property of bitumen that permits it to undergo great deformation or elongation.  Ductility is defined as the distance in cm, to which a standard sample of the material will be elongated without breaking.  The bitumen sample is heated and poured in the mould assembly placed on a plate.  Then the mould with assembly containing sample is kept in water bath for about 90 minutes.  The sides of the moulds are removed and the machine is operated.  The distance up to the point of breaking of thread is the ductility value which is reported in cm.  A minimum ductility value of 75 cm has been specified by the BIS
Ductility test
Softening point test DESCRIPTION AND PROCEDURE Softening point denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains a particular degree of softening under the specific test conditions. The test is conducted by using Ring and Ball apparatus. sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid like water or glycerin at a given temperature. A steel ball is placed upon the bitumen sample and the liquid medium is heated at a rate of 5o C per minute. Temperature is noted when the softened bitumen touches the metal plate which is at a specified distance below. Generally, higher softening point indicates lower temperature susceptibility and is preferred in hot climates.
Softening point test
Viscosity test  Viscosity denotes the fluid property of bituminous material and it is a measure of resistance to flow.  Low or high viscosity - Result in lower stability values.  High viscosity - Resist the compactive effort and thereby resulting mix is heterogeneous.  Orifice type viscometers are used to indirectly find the viscosity of liquid binders like cutbacks and emulsions.  The viscosity expressed in seconds is the time taken by the 50 ml bitumen material to pass through the orifice of a cup, under standard test conditions.  Viscosity of a cutback can be measured with either 4.0 mm orifice at 25o C or 10 mm orifice at 25 or 40o C.
Viscosity test
Flash and fire point test  At high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen materials converts in to volatile substance.  And these volatiles catches re which is very hazardous and therefore it is essential to qualify this temperature test for each bitumen grade.  BIS defined the flash point as the temperature at which the vapor of bitumen momentarily catches fire in the form of flash under specified test conditions.  The fire point is defined as the lowest temperature under specified test conditions at which the bituminous material gets ignited and burns.
Flash and fire point test
Specific gravity test The density of bitumen is greatly influenced by its chemical composition. Increase in mineral impurities cause an increase in specific gravity. The specific gravity of bitumen is defined as the ratio of mass of given volume of bitumen of known content to the mass of equal volume of water at 27 0C. The specific gravity can be measured using either pycnometer or preparing a cube specimen of bitumen in semi solid or solid state. The specific gravity of bitumen varies from 0.97 to 1.02.
Specific gravity test
Loss on heating test  When the bitumen is heated it loses the volatility and gets hardened.  About 50gm of the sample is weighed and heated to a temperature of 163 0C for 5hours in a specified oven designed for this test.  The sample specimen is weighed again after the heating period and loss in weight is expressed as percentage by weight of the original sample.  Bitumen used in pavement mixes should not indicate more than 1% loss in weight, but for bitumen having penetration values 150-200 up to 2% loss in weight is allowed.
Loss on heating test
Bituminous mix design Requirements of Bituminous mixes Stability - Stability is defined as the resistance of the paving mix to deformation under traffic load. Two examples of failure are (i) Shoving - a transverse rigid deformation which occurs at areas subject to severe acceleration (ii) Grooving - longitudinal ridging due to channelization of traffic. Primarily of the aggregates and the cohesion offered by the bitumen The stability decreases when the binder content is high and when the particles are kept apart.
Bituminous mix design
Bituminous mix design Durability- Durability is defined as the resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive actions. Weathering causes hardening due to loss of volatiles in the bitumen. Abrasion is due to wheel loads which causes tensile strains. Typical examples of failure are  pot-holes- deterioration of pavements locally  stripping-lost of binder from the aggregates and aggregates are exposed. Disintegration is minimized by high binder content since they cause the mix to be air and waterproof and the bitumen film is more resistant to hardening.
Bituminous mix design
Bituminous mix design Flexibility- Flexibility is a measure of the level of bending strength needed to counteract traffic load and prevent cracking of surface.  Fracture is the cracks formed on the surface (hairline- cracks, alligator cracks), main reasons are shrinkage and brittleness of the binder.  Shrinkage cracks are due to volume change in the binder due to aging.  Brittleness is due to repeated bending of the surface due to traffic loads. Higher bitumen content will givebn better flexibility and less fracture.
Bituminous mix design
Bituminous mix design Workability Workability is the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted, and formed to the required condition and shape. This depends on the gradation of aggregates, their shape and texture, bitumen content and its type. Angular, flaky, and elongated aggregates decreases workability. Rounded aggregates improve workability
Bituminous mix design Desirable properties  Stability to meet traffic demand  Bitumen content to ensure proper binding and water proofing  Voids to accommodate compaction due to traffic  Flexibility to meet traffic loads, esp. in cold season  Sufficient workability for construction  Economical mix
Dedicated to Sanjay…. The idea of this presentation is not to make you pass in the exam. The only idea is to save at least some of the 1.2 millions killed in road accidents every year. If at least one life can be saved, that will be a great success.
Road Accident Statistics  More than 1.2 million people are killed in Road Accidents, worldwide , every year.  3 to 4 % of Gross National Product Is lost in Road Accidents.  One child is killed in Road Accidents, every three minutes in the World.
Causes of road accidents The various causes of road accidents are:  Road Users - Excessive speed and rash driving, violation of traffic rules, failure to perceive traffic situation or sign or signal in adequate time, carelessness, fatigue, alcohol, sleep etc.
Causes of road accidents The various causes of road accidents are:  Vehicle - Defects such as failure of brakes, steering system, tyre burst, lighting system .
Causes of road accidents The various causes of road accidents are:  Road Condition - Skidding road surface, pot holes, ruts.
Causes of road accidents The various causes of road accidents are:  Road design - Defective geometric design like inadequate sight distance, inadequate width of shoulders, improper curve design, improper traffic control devices and improper lighting,.
Causes of road accidents The various causes of road accidents are:  Environmental factors -unfavorable weather conditions like mist, snow, smoke and heavy rainfall which restrict normal visibility and makes driving unsafe.
Causes of road accidents The various causes of road accidents are:  Other causes-improper location of advertisement boards, gate of level crossing not closed when required etc..
Measures To Reduce Accident Rate. There are three measures are generally termed "3-Es". To reduce accident rates. • Engineering • Enforcement • Education Engineering measures.  Road design : The geometric design features of the road such as sight distances, width of pavement, horizontal and vertical alignment design details and intersection design elements, the pavement surface characteristics including the skid resistance values - are checked and corrected if necessary.  Preventive maintenance of vehicles : The braking system, steering and lighting arrangements of vehicles plying on the roads may be checked at suitable intervals
Measures To Reduce Accident Rate.  Before and after studies : The record of accidents and their patterns for different locations are maintained by means of collision and condition diagrams. • After making the necessary improvements in design and enforcing regulation, it is again necessary to collect and maintain the record of accidents "before and after" the introduction of preventive measures to study their efficiency.  Road lighting : Proper road lighting can decrease the rate of accidents. • Lighting is particularly desirable at intersections, bridge sites and at places where there are restrictions to traffic movements.
Measures To Reduce Accident Rate. Enforcement Measures  Speed control : To enable drivers of buses to develop correct speed habits tachometers may be fitted so as to give the record of speeds. • Also surprise checks on the spot should be done at selected locations  Traffic control devices Signals may be re-designed or signal system fee introduced if necessary, Similarly proper traffic control device like signs, markings or channelizing islands may be installed wherever found necessary.  Training and supervision : The transport authorities should be strict in testing and issuing license to drivers of public service vehicles and taxis. • Driving license of the driver may be renewed after specified period, only after conducting some tests to check whether the driver is fit.
Measures To Reduce Accident Rate. Enforcement Measures  Medical check : The drivers should be tested for vision and reaction time at prescribed intervals, say, once in three years.  Special precautions for commercial vehicles : It may be insisted on having a conductor or attendant to help and give proper direction to drivers of heavy commercial vehicles.  Observance of lam and regulation : Traffic or transport authorities should send groups of trained personnel, assisted by police to different locations to effect whether the traffic regulations are being followed by the road users and also to enforce the essential regulations.
Measures To Reduce Accident Rate. Educational Measures  Education of road users : It is very essential to educate the road users for various precautionary measures to use the road way facilities with safety. • The passenger and pedestrians should be taught the rules of the road. • The Indian Roads Congress has recently prepared Highway Safety Code and the document on Road Safety for school children.  Safety drive:- Imposing traffic safety week where the road users are properly directed by the help of traffic police and transport staff. • Roads users should be impressed on what should and what should not be done, with the help of films and documentaries. • The IRC has been organizing Highway Safe Workshop in different regions fee country.
highway engineering/ transportation engineering-I

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highway engineering/ transportation engineering-I

  • 1.
    Elements of a TypicalCross-section of Road and Highway drainage Transportation Engineering – I Subrat Kumar Padhy
  • 2.
    Pavement surface characteristics • Forsafe and comfortable driving four aspects of the pavement surface are important. • It includes :- – Friction between the wheels and the pavement surface. – Smoothness of the road surface – The light reflection characteristics of road. – Drainage of water.
  • 3.
    Friction between thewheels and the pavement surface. • It is a crucial factor in the design of horizontal curves. • It affects the acceleration and deceleration ability of vehicles • Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping of vehicles. – Skidding happens when the path traveled along the road surface is more than the circumferential movement of the wheels due to friction. – Slip occurs when the wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along the road
  • 4.
    • Various factorsthat affect friction are: – Type of the pavement (like bituminous, concrete, or gravel), – Condition of the pavement (dry or wet, hot or cold, etc), – Condition of the tyre (new or old), and – Speed and load of the vehicle. • The frictional totally depends upon a factor called the coefficient of friction and denoted as f. – IRC suggests the coefficient of longitudinal friction as 0.35-0.4 useful in sight distance calculation. – Coefficient of lateral friction as 0.15 useful in horizontal curve design Friction between the wheels and the pavement surface.
  • 5.
    Pavement Unevenness • Evenif a road is constructed with high quality pavers, it is possible to develop unevenness due to pavement failures. • Unevenness affects the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety, fuel consumption and wear and tear of tyres. • Pavement Unevenness is measured in terms of Unevenness index. • Unevenness index is a measure of unevenness which is the cumulative measure of vertical undulations of the pavement surface recorded per unit horizontal length of the road. • An unevenness index value – Less than 1500 mm/km - good – Less than 2500 mm/km - satisfactory – Greater than 3200 mm/km - uncomfortable even for speed of 55 kmph.
  • 6.
  • 7.
    Light refection characteristics •It is necessary that the road surface should be visible at night and reflection of light from the road surface should be less. • White roads have good visibility at night, but caused glare during day time. • Black roads has no glare during day, but has poor visibility at night • Concrete roads has better visibility and less glare. • Wet pavement surface can cause high glare. – Glare is difficulty seeing in the presence bright light such as direct or reflected sunlight or artificial light such as car headlights at night.
  • 8.
  • 9.
    Drainage • The pavementsurface should be absolutely impermeable to prevent seepage of water into the pavement layers. • Further, both the geometry and texture of pavement surface should be such that it drain out all the water from the surface in less time. • Drains should be provided on one side or both side of the road pavement
  • 10.
  • 11.
    Cross-Section Elements The crosssection of a road includes some or all of the following elements: – Right of way. – Carriage way – Camber or cross slope. – Kerbs – Road margins. • Shoulders • Parking lanes • Bus-bays • Service roads. • Footpath. • Guard rails
  • 12.
    Right of Way •Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its alignment. • It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the highway and may reasonably provide for future development. • The width of right of way is governed by: – Width of formation of road. – Height of embankment or depth of cutting – Side slopes of embankment or cutting – Drainage system – Sight distance considerations – Reserve land for future widening • According to IRC normal width of ROW – For 2 lane road = 150 ft width of area (46m) – For 4 lane road = 250 ft width of area (76m) – For 8 lane road = 300 ft width of area (91m)
  • 13.
  • 14.
    Traveled Way orCarriage Way • The portion of the roadway provided for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of shoulders. • Number of lanes on a traveled way are decided on the basis of expected traffic volumes and appropriate level of service required for the facility. • Width of a lane depends on the width of the vehicle and the clearance needed. • According to IRC – Minimum of lane width of 3.75 m - Single lane road. – Two lane road require minimum of 3.5 meter for each lane total 7m for both lane.
  • 15.
  • 16.
    Road Way • Theportion of a highway provided for vehicular use. • It includes both carriageway and shoulders.
  • 17.
    Shoulders • Shoulders arethe strips provided on both sides of the carriage way. • A minimum width of 2.5 m is recommended for 2- lane highways in India. (max 4.5m)
  • 18.
    Functions of shoulders •accommodation of stopped vehicles (disabled vehicles, bus stops) • emergency use • lateral support for the pavement • space for roadside facilities • space for bicycles and pedestrians • driving comfort (freedom from strain) • improvement in sight distance • improvement in capacity
  • 19.
    Camber • Camber isthe cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse direction to drain off rain water from road surface. • Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. • Camber is measured in 1 in n or n% (Eg. 1 in 50 or 2%) • The objectives of providing camber are: – Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads – Sub-grade protection by proper drainage. – Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety.
  • 20.
  • 21.
    IRC Values forcamber Surface type Heavy rain Light rain Concrete/Bituminous 2 % 1.7 % Gravel/WBM 3 % 2.5 % Earthen 4 % 3.0 %
  • 22.
    Kerb • It isthe dividing line between carriageway and footpath.
  • 23.
    Types of Kerbs •Low or mountable kerbs: – Height of 10 cm above the pavement edge. – With a slope which allows the vehicle to climb over easily • Semi-barrier type kerbs – Height is 15 cm above the pavement edge. – parking vehicles, but at emergency only. • Barrier type kerbs. – Height of 20 cm above the pavement edge – With a steep slope. • Submerged kerb. – Provide lateral stability
  • 24.
  • 25.
    Functions of Kerbs •Drainage control • Roadway edge delineation • Right-of-way reduction • Delineation of pedestrian walkways • Reduction in maintenance operation • Assistance in roadside development
  • 26.
    Median or TrafficSeparators • It is the physical or painted separation provided on divided highways between two adjacent roadways. • Medians can also be used to isolate slow and fast moving traffic in the same direction. • Width of medians ranges from 1.2 to 2.4 m.
  • 29.
  • 30.
    Foot Path orside Walk • Foot paths are provided in Urban roads • These are raised strips constructed along both the edges of roads. • Their minimum recommended width is 1.5 m.
  • 31.
    Foot Path orside Walk
  • 32.
    Foot Path orside Walk
  • 33.
    Bicycle and Parkinglane • Bicycle lane is a portion of the roadway designated by striping, signing, and/or pavement markings for preferential or exclusive use by bicycles and/or other non-motorized vehicles. • Parking lane is an additional lane provided on Urban roads and streets for on-street parking.
  • 34.
    Bicycle and Parkinglane Minimum Width Requirements
  • 35.
  • 36.
    Traffic Barriers orGuard rails • They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an embankment. • They serve to prevent the vehicles from running o the embankment, especially when the height exceeds 3 m. • Guard rails of stones painted in alternate black and white are usually used. • They also give better visibility of curves at night under headlights of vehicles.
  • 37.
  • 38.
  • 39.
    Bus-bays • Bus baysare provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. • They are provided so that they do not obstruct the movement of vehicles in the carriage way. • They should be at least 75 meters away from the intersection so that the traffic near the intersections is not affected by the bus-bay.
  • 40.
  • 41.
  • 42.
    Pavements  Highway pavementis a structure consistingHighway pavement is a structure consisting layers of processed materials above thelayers of processed materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primarynatural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehiclefunction is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade.loads to the sub-grade.  The pavement structure should be able toThe pavement structure should be able to provide a surface with adequate skidprovide a surface with adequate skid resistance, favourable light reflectingresistance, favourable light reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution.characteristics, and low noise pollution.  Two types of pavements • Flexible pavements • Rigid pavements.
  • 43.
  • 44.
  • 45.
    Flexible Pavements  Flexiblepavements normally has many layers. Hence, the design of flexible pavement uses the concept of layered system.  Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure
  • 46.
  • 47.
    Typical layers ofa flexible pavement  Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes • Seal coat • Surface course • Tack coat • Binder course • Prime coat • Base course • Sub-base course • Compacted sub-grade • Natural sub-grade
  • 48.
    Sealcoat  Sealcoat isa liquid that is applied to asphalt to protect it from oxidation and the damage caused by winter cracking, as well as UV rays and traffic.  In areas of the world that experience freezing and thawing, this special coat is applied.
  • 49.
    Surface course  Surfacecourse is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains superior quality materials.  They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete(AC).  It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying layers.
  • 50.
    Tack coat  Itis a thin coating of tar or asphalt applied before a roads surface course is laid to form an adhesive bond.  It must be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.
  • 51.
    Binder course  Inasphaltic concrete paving, an intermediate course between the base course and the surfacing material is present called binder course.  It consists of intermediate-size aggregate bound by bituminous material.
  • 52.
    Prime coat Prime coatis an application of a low viscosity asphalt to a granular base in preparation for an initial layer (or surface course layer) of asphalt. It is generally • Provide adhesion between the base course and succeeding asphalt course. • It penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface. After applying the prime coat, it must cure for a minimum of 48-72 hours before asphalt is placed, with no rain in the forecast
  • 53.
  • 54.
    Base course  Thebase course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder course.  It provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage  It may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials.
  • 55.
  • 56.
    Sub-Base course  Thesub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course  primary functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade.  A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a high quality materials, In such situations, sub- base course may not be provided.
  • 57.
  • 58.
    Sub grade soil The supporting soil beneath pavement and its special under courses is called sub grade.  Undisturbed soil beneath the pavement is called natural sub grade.  Compacted sub grade is the soil compacted by controlled movement of heavy compactors.
  • 59.
    Desirable properties  Thedesirable properties of sub grade soil as a highway material are • Stability • Incompressibility • Permanency of strength • Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather and ground water • Good drainage • Ease of compaction
  • 60.
    Soil Types  Thewide range of soil types available as highway construction materials have made it obligatory on the part of the highway engineer to identify and classify different soils.  Broadly, the soil types can be categorized as Laterite soil, Moorum/red soil, Sandy soil, Alluvial soil, Clay including Black cotton soil.
  • 61.
    Soil Types  Gravel:These are coarse materials with particle size under 2.36 mm with little or no fines contributing to cohesion of materials.  Moorum: These are products of decomposition and weathering of the pavement rock. Visually these are similar to gravel except presence of higher content of fines.  Sand : Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt.  Silts: These are finer than sand, brighter in color as compared to clay, exhibit little cohesion and show dilatancy.  Clays: These are finer than silts. Clayey soils exhibit stickiness, high strength when dry, and show no dilatancy. • Black cotton soil and other expansive clays exhibit swelling and shrinkage properties. Paste of clay with water when rubbed in between fingers leaves stain, which is not observed for silts.
  • 62.
  • 63.
    Tests on sub-gradesoil  The main function of the sub grade is to give adequate support to the pavement.  For this the sub grade should possess sufficient stability under adverse climatic and loading conditions. Therefore, it is very essential to evaluate the sub grade by conducting tests.  The tests used to evaluate the strength properties of soils are of 3 types. • Shear tests • Bearing tests • Penetration tests
  • 64.
    Direct Shear Test CONCEPT TheDirect Shear Test is used for determination of the consolidated drained (or undrained) shear strength of soils. The test is performed by deforming a specimen at a controlled rate on or near a single shear plane. DESCRIPTION AND PROCEDURE The soil sample is placed in a cubic shear box composed of a upper and lower box. The limit between the two parts of the box is approximately at the mid height of the sample. The sample is subjected to a controlled normal stress and the upper part of the sample is pulled laterally at a controlled strain rate or until the sample fails. The applied lateral load and the induced strain are recorded at given internals. These measurements are then used to plot the stress-strain curve of the sample during the loading for the given normal stress.
  • 65.
  • 66.
    Plate Bearing Test CONCEPT Inplate bearing test, a compressive stress is applied to the soil or pavement layer through rigid plates relatively large size and the defections are measured for various stress values. The plate-bearing test was originally meant to find the modulus of sub grade reaction. DESCRIPTION AND PROCEDURE The setup consists of • Plates of 75,60,45 and 30 cm diameter. • Proving ring arrangement. • Hydraulic jack • Reaction frame • Datum frame loaded with dial gauges.
  • 67.
    Plate Bearing Test DESCRIPTIONAND PROCEDURE  Modulus of sub grade reaction • It can be defined as the pressure sustained per unit deformation of subgrade soil at a specified pressure level. • It is directly calculated as the load imposed upon the plate(75 cm) to achieve a deflection of 1.25mm. • This give a value in N/mm2/mm or N/mm3.  Test Procedure. • The test site is prepared and loose material is removed so that the 75 cm diameter plate rests horizontally in full contact with the soil sub-grade.
  • 68.
    Plate Bearing Test Test Procedure. • a seating load is applied and released after a few seconds and the settlement dial gauge is now set corresponding to zero load. • A load is applied by means of jack and the load and settlement dial readings are noted. • The load is increased until a deflection of 1.25mm is achieved. • The average of three or four settlement dial readings is taken as the settlement of the plate corresponding to the applied load.  Calculation • A graph is plotted with the mean settlement versus bearing pressure.
  • 69.
  • 70.
    California Bearing Ratio Test DESCRIPTIONAND PROCEDURE California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was developed by the California Division of Highway as a method of classifying and evaluating soil-sub grade and base course materials for flexible pavements. It is a penetration test wherein a standard piston, having a 50 mm diameter is used to penetrate the soil at a standard rate of 1.25 mm/minute. The penetration at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetrations is taken as the bearing value. The ratio to the bearing value of the soil sample and standard crushed rock is termed as the CBR. In most cases, CBR decreases as the penetration increases. The CBR is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of standard plunger under controlled density and moisture conditions
  • 71.
    California Bearing Ratio Test TestProcedure The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould 150 mm diameter with a base plate and a collar, a loading frame and dial gauges for measuring the penetration values and the expansion on soaking. The specimen in the mould is soaked in water for four days and the swelling and water absorption values are noted. The mould and the assembly is placed under the plunger of the loading frame. Load is applied on the sample by a standard plunger with dia of 50 mm at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. A load penetration curve is drawn. The load values on standard crushed stones are 1370 kg and 2055 kg at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetrations respectively. CBR value is expressed as a percentage of the actual load causing the penetrations of 2.5 mm or 5.0 mm to the standard loads mentioned above.
  • 72.
  • 73.
  • 74.
    Aggregates Aggregate is acollective term for the mineral materials such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone that are used in the construction of a pavement. DESIRABLE PROPERTIES  Strength  Hardness  Toughness  Shape of aggregates  Adhesion with bitumen  Durability  Freedom from deleterious particles
  • 75.
    Aggregates tests To decidethe suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following tests are carried out. Crushing test  Abrasion test  Impact test  Soundness test  Shape test  Specific gravity and water absorption test  Bitumen adhesion test
  • 76.
    Aggregate Crushing Test This test is used to determine the crushing strength of aggregates  The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under gradually applied crushing load. Test Procedure  Dry aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieves and retained 10 mm sieves are taken as test sample.  The test sample is weighed and placed in the test cylinder of 11.5 mm diameter and 18 cm height in three layers each layer being tampered 25 times.  The specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied at the rate of 4 tones per minute.  Then crushed aggregates are then sieved through 2.36 mm sieve and weight of passing material (W2) is expressed as percentage of the weight of the total sample (W1) which is the aggregate crushing value.
  • 77.
    Aggregate Crushing Test CALCULATION Aggregatecrushing value = (W2/W1) x 100. A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above 35 would normally be regarded as weak aggregates.
  • 78.
    Abrasion test DESCRIPTION ANDPROCEDURE Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether they are suitable for different pavement construction works. Los Angeles abrasion test is a preferred one for carrying out the hardness property and has been standardized in India. The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.
  • 79.
    Abrasion test Test Procedure LosAngeles machine consists of Circular drum • internal diameter 700 mm • length 520 An abrasive charge (cast iron spherical balls) • 48 mm diameters • weight 340-445 g Charge is placed in the cylinder along with the aggregates. The quantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and usually ranges from 5-10 kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of 500 -1000 revolutions. After this, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and passed fraction is expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value is called Los Angeles abrasion value.
  • 80.
    Abrasion test CALCULATION Los Angelesabrasion value= (W2/W1) x 100 • W1= weight of test sample initially taken. • W2= weight of test sample that passed through 2.36 mm sieve A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for WBM base course in Indian conditions.
  • 81.
  • 82.
    Impact test DESCRIPTION ANDPROCEDURE The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates. Test Procedure Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel cup of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing machine. The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 number of blows. Metal hammer of weight 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 and 15 number of blows are given. The crushed aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. The impact value is measured as percentage of aggregates passing sieve (W2) to the total weight of the sample (W1).
  • 83.
    Impact test CALCULATION Los Angelesabrasion value= (W2/W1) x 100 • W1= weight of test sample initially taken. • W2= weight of test sample that passed through 2.36 mm sieve For bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value is 35 percent. For Water bound macadam base courses the maximum permissible value defined by IRC is 40 percent.
  • 84.
  • 85.
    Pavement materials: Bitumen  Bituminousmaterials or asphalts are extensively used for roadway construction, primarily because of their excellent binding characteristics and water proofing properties and relatively low cost.  Bitumen is the residue or by-product when the crude petroleum is refined
  • 86.
    Different forms ofbitumen  Cutback bitumen- Normal practice is to heat bitumen to reduce its viscosity. In cutback bitumen suitable solvent is used to lower the viscosity of the bitumen.  Bitumen Emulsion-Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which bitumen is suspended in a finely divided condition in an aqueous medium and stabilized by suitable material.  Bituminous primers- Bitumen Primer is a locally manufactured bitumen solution suitable for sealing and priming porous and non-porous surfaces.  Modified Bitumen-Certain additives or blend of additives called as bitumen modifiers can improve properties of Bitumen and bituminous mixes. Bitumen treated with these modifiers is known as modified bitumen.
  • 87.
    Tests on bitumen 1.Penetration test 2. Ductility test 3. Softening point test 4. Specific gravity test 5. Viscosity test 6. Flash and Fire point test 7. Float test 8. Water content test 9. Loss on heating test
  • 88.
    Penetration test  Itmeasures the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in tenths of a millimeter to which a standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in 5 seconds.  The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight of 100g.  The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly and poured into container  A grade of 40/50 bitumen means the penetration value is in the range 40 to 50 at standard test conditions.
  • 89.
    Ductility test  Ductilityis the property of bitumen that permits it to undergo great deformation or elongation.  Ductility is defined as the distance in cm, to which a standard sample of the material will be elongated without breaking.  The bitumen sample is heated and poured in the mould assembly placed on a plate.  Then the mould with assembly containing sample is kept in water bath for about 90 minutes.  The sides of the moulds are removed and the machine is operated.  The distance up to the point of breaking of thread is the ductility value which is reported in cm.  A minimum ductility value of 75 cm has been specified by the BIS
  • 90.
  • 91.
    Softening point test DESCRIPTIONAND PROCEDURE Softening point denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains a particular degree of softening under the specific test conditions. The test is conducted by using Ring and Ball apparatus. sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid like water or glycerin at a given temperature. A steel ball is placed upon the bitumen sample and the liquid medium is heated at a rate of 5o C per minute. Temperature is noted when the softened bitumen touches the metal plate which is at a specified distance below. Generally, higher softening point indicates lower temperature susceptibility and is preferred in hot climates.
  • 92.
  • 93.
    Viscosity test  Viscositydenotes the fluid property of bituminous material and it is a measure of resistance to flow.  Low or high viscosity - Result in lower stability values.  High viscosity - Resist the compactive effort and thereby resulting mix is heterogeneous.  Orifice type viscometers are used to indirectly find the viscosity of liquid binders like cutbacks and emulsions.  The viscosity expressed in seconds is the time taken by the 50 ml bitumen material to pass through the orifice of a cup, under standard test conditions.  Viscosity of a cutback can be measured with either 4.0 mm orifice at 25o C or 10 mm orifice at 25 or 40o C.
  • 94.
  • 95.
    Flash and firepoint test  At high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen materials converts in to volatile substance.  And these volatiles catches re which is very hazardous and therefore it is essential to qualify this temperature test for each bitumen grade.  BIS defined the flash point as the temperature at which the vapor of bitumen momentarily catches fire in the form of flash under specified test conditions.  The fire point is defined as the lowest temperature under specified test conditions at which the bituminous material gets ignited and burns.
  • 96.
    Flash and firepoint test
  • 97.
    Specific gravity test Thedensity of bitumen is greatly influenced by its chemical composition. Increase in mineral impurities cause an increase in specific gravity. The specific gravity of bitumen is defined as the ratio of mass of given volume of bitumen of known content to the mass of equal volume of water at 27 0C. The specific gravity can be measured using either pycnometer or preparing a cube specimen of bitumen in semi solid or solid state. The specific gravity of bitumen varies from 0.97 to 1.02.
  • 98.
  • 99.
    Loss on heatingtest  When the bitumen is heated it loses the volatility and gets hardened.  About 50gm of the sample is weighed and heated to a temperature of 163 0C for 5hours in a specified oven designed for this test.  The sample specimen is weighed again after the heating period and loss in weight is expressed as percentage by weight of the original sample.  Bitumen used in pavement mixes should not indicate more than 1% loss in weight, but for bitumen having penetration values 150-200 up to 2% loss in weight is allowed.
  • 100.
  • 101.
    Bituminous mix design Requirementsof Bituminous mixes Stability - Stability is defined as the resistance of the paving mix to deformation under traffic load. Two examples of failure are (i) Shoving - a transverse rigid deformation which occurs at areas subject to severe acceleration (ii) Grooving - longitudinal ridging due to channelization of traffic. Primarily of the aggregates and the cohesion offered by the bitumen The stability decreases when the binder content is high and when the particles are kept apart.
  • 102.
  • 103.
    Bituminous mix design Durability-Durability is defined as the resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive actions. Weathering causes hardening due to loss of volatiles in the bitumen. Abrasion is due to wheel loads which causes tensile strains. Typical examples of failure are  pot-holes- deterioration of pavements locally  stripping-lost of binder from the aggregates and aggregates are exposed. Disintegration is minimized by high binder content since they cause the mix to be air and waterproof and the bitumen film is more resistant to hardening.
  • 104.
  • 105.
    Bituminous mix design Flexibility-Flexibility is a measure of the level of bending strength needed to counteract traffic load and prevent cracking of surface.  Fracture is the cracks formed on the surface (hairline- cracks, alligator cracks), main reasons are shrinkage and brittleness of the binder.  Shrinkage cracks are due to volume change in the binder due to aging.  Brittleness is due to repeated bending of the surface due to traffic loads. Higher bitumen content will givebn better flexibility and less fracture.
  • 106.
  • 107.
    Bituminous mix design Workability Workabilityis the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted, and formed to the required condition and shape. This depends on the gradation of aggregates, their shape and texture, bitumen content and its type. Angular, flaky, and elongated aggregates decreases workability. Rounded aggregates improve workability
  • 108.
    Bituminous mix design Desirableproperties  Stability to meet traffic demand  Bitumen content to ensure proper binding and water proofing  Voids to accommodate compaction due to traffic  Flexibility to meet traffic loads, esp. in cold season  Sufficient workability for construction  Economical mix
  • 110.
    Dedicated to Sanjay…. Theidea of this presentation is not to make you pass in the exam. The only idea is to save at least some of the 1.2 millions killed in road accidents every year. If at least one life can be saved, that will be a great success.
  • 111.
    Road Accident Statistics More than 1.2 million people are killed in Road Accidents, worldwide , every year.  3 to 4 % of Gross National Product Is lost in Road Accidents.  One child is killed in Road Accidents, every three minutes in the World.
  • 112.
    Causes of roadaccidents The various causes of road accidents are:  Road Users - Excessive speed and rash driving, violation of traffic rules, failure to perceive traffic situation or sign or signal in adequate time, carelessness, fatigue, alcohol, sleep etc.
  • 113.
    Causes of roadaccidents The various causes of road accidents are:  Vehicle - Defects such as failure of brakes, steering system, tyre burst, lighting system .
  • 114.
    Causes of roadaccidents The various causes of road accidents are:  Road Condition - Skidding road surface, pot holes, ruts.
  • 115.
    Causes of roadaccidents The various causes of road accidents are:  Road design - Defective geometric design like inadequate sight distance, inadequate width of shoulders, improper curve design, improper traffic control devices and improper lighting,.
  • 116.
    Causes of roadaccidents The various causes of road accidents are:  Environmental factors -unfavorable weather conditions like mist, snow, smoke and heavy rainfall which restrict normal visibility and makes driving unsafe.
  • 117.
    Causes of roadaccidents The various causes of road accidents are:  Other causes-improper location of advertisement boards, gate of level crossing not closed when required etc..
  • 118.
    Measures To Reduce AccidentRate. There are three measures are generally termed "3-Es". To reduce accident rates. • Engineering • Enforcement • Education Engineering measures.  Road design : The geometric design features of the road such as sight distances, width of pavement, horizontal and vertical alignment design details and intersection design elements, the pavement surface characteristics including the skid resistance values - are checked and corrected if necessary.  Preventive maintenance of vehicles : The braking system, steering and lighting arrangements of vehicles plying on the roads may be checked at suitable intervals
  • 119.
    Measures To Reduce AccidentRate.  Before and after studies : The record of accidents and their patterns for different locations are maintained by means of collision and condition diagrams. • After making the necessary improvements in design and enforcing regulation, it is again necessary to collect and maintain the record of accidents "before and after" the introduction of preventive measures to study their efficiency.  Road lighting : Proper road lighting can decrease the rate of accidents. • Lighting is particularly desirable at intersections, bridge sites and at places where there are restrictions to traffic movements.
  • 120.
    Measures To Reduce AccidentRate. Enforcement Measures  Speed control : To enable drivers of buses to develop correct speed habits tachometers may be fitted so as to give the record of speeds. • Also surprise checks on the spot should be done at selected locations  Traffic control devices Signals may be re-designed or signal system fee introduced if necessary, Similarly proper traffic control device like signs, markings or channelizing islands may be installed wherever found necessary.  Training and supervision : The transport authorities should be strict in testing and issuing license to drivers of public service vehicles and taxis. • Driving license of the driver may be renewed after specified period, only after conducting some tests to check whether the driver is fit.
  • 121.
    Measures To Reduce AccidentRate. Enforcement Measures  Medical check : The drivers should be tested for vision and reaction time at prescribed intervals, say, once in three years.  Special precautions for commercial vehicles : It may be insisted on having a conductor or attendant to help and give proper direction to drivers of heavy commercial vehicles.  Observance of lam and regulation : Traffic or transport authorities should send groups of trained personnel, assisted by police to different locations to effect whether the traffic regulations are being followed by the road users and also to enforce the essential regulations.
  • 122.
    Measures To Reduce AccidentRate. Educational Measures  Education of road users : It is very essential to educate the road users for various precautionary measures to use the road way facilities with safety. • The passenger and pedestrians should be taught the rules of the road. • The Indian Roads Congress has recently prepared Highway Safety Code and the document on Road Safety for school children.  Safety drive:- Imposing traffic safety week where the road users are properly directed by the help of traffic police and transport staff. • Roads users should be impressed on what should and what should not be done, with the help of films and documentaries. • The IRC has been organizing Highway Safe Workshop in different regions fee country.