This document discusses various methods of solid waste and excreta disposal. It defines solid waste and describes different types of waste generated from households and other sources. It then discusses the health hazards of improper waste accumulation and disposal methods like dumping, landfilling, composting, incineration etc. For excreta disposal, it explains various sanitary and insanitary latrine options as well as sewerage systems. Key methods covered include pit latrines, pour flush latrines, septic tanks and different composting toilets.

1. By,
Sunandha.T,
MSc Nursing 1st year.

2.  DEFINITIONS:
 It is defined as an Unwanted or discarded waste
material from houses, street sweeping,
commercial industrial, and agricultural operation
arising from man’s activities.

3.  The term “solid wastes” includes garbage
(food wastes) rubbish (paper, plastics, wood,
metal, throw-way containers, glass) demolition
products (bricks, masonry, pipes), sewage
treatment residue (sludge and solids from the
coarse screening of domestic sewage), dead
animals, manure and other discarded material.

4.  Solid waste, if allowed to accumulate, is a
health hazard because:
 It decomposes and favors fly breeding
 It attracts rodents and vermin
 The pathogens which may be present in the solid
waste may be conveyed back to man’s food
through flies and dust.
 There is a possibility of water and soil pollution,
and
 Heaps of refuse present an unsightly appearance
and nuisance from bad odors.

5. Street waste
Domestic waste
Market waste
Stable litter
Industrial waste
Domestic waste

6.  The first consideration should be given to the
proper storage of refuse.
 The galvanized steel dust bin with close fitting
cover is a suitable receptacle for storing refuse.
 The capacity of a bin will depend upon the number
of users and frequency of collection
 Public Bins:
 cater for a larger number of people.
 kept on a concrete platform raised 2 to 3 inches
above ground level to prevent flood water entering
bins.
 In bigger municipalities, the bins are handled and
emptied mechanically by lorries fitted with cranes.

7.  House-to-house collection is by far the best
method of collecting refuse.
 In India, there is no house to house collection
system. People are expected to dump the refuse
in the nearest public bin, which is usually not done
 The Environmental Hygiene Committee (1949)
recommended that municipalities and other local
bodies should arrange for collection of refuse not
only from the public bins but also from individual
houses .

8.  WASTE MANAGEMENT METHODS
Waste management methods vary widely between
areas for many reasons, including type of waste
material, nearby land uses, and the area available.

9. HOG FEEDING:
 Refuse dumped in lying areas.
 Bacterial action over time, decreases volume of
refuse which is gradually converted into humus.
Disadvantages:
 Smell
 Unsightly appearance
 Free access to flies, rodents, hogs, dogs etc..
 Dispersal by wind

10.  Refuse is dumped in low lying areas partly as a
method of reclamation of land but mainly as an
pollution of surface and ground water easy
method of disposal of dry refuse. As a result of
bacterial action, refuse decreases considerably in
volume and is converted gradually into humus.

11. The drawbacks of open dumping are:
 (1) the refuse is exposed to flies and rodents,
 (2) it is a source of nuisance from the smell and
unsightly appearance.
 (3) the loose refuse is dispersed by the action of the
wind and
 (4) drainage from dumps contributes to the pollution of
surface and ground water.
 A WHO Expert Committee (1967) condemned
dumping as "a most insanitary method that creates
public health hazards, a nuisance, and severe
pollution of the environment". Dumping should be
outlawed and replaced by sound procedures.

12. Sanitary landfill / Controlled tipping
 Controlled tipping or sanitary landfill is the most
satisfactory method of refuse disposal where
suitable land is available.
 It differs from ordinary dumping in that the material
is placed in a trench or other prepared area,
adequately compacted, and covered with earth at
the end of the working cay.

13. Three methods are used in this operation:
 The trench method,
 The ramp method and
 The area method.
The trench method:
 Where level ground is available, the trench
method is usually chosen. A long trench is dug out
2 to 3 m (6-10 ft.) deep and 4 to 12 m. (12-36 ft.)
wide, depending upon local conditions. The refuse
is compacted and covered ''with excavated earth.
Where compacted refuse is placed in the fill to a
depth of 2 m (6 ft). It is estimated that one acre of
land per gear will be required for 10,000
population .

14. The ramp method:
 This method is well suited where the terrain is
moderately sloping. Some excavation is done to
secure the covering material.
The area method:
 This method is used for filling land depressions,
disused quarries and clay pits. The refuse is
deposited, packed and consolidated in uniform
layers up to 2 to 2.5 m (6-8 ft.) deep .

16.  Refuse can be disposed of hygienically by burning or
incineration.
 It is the method of choice where suitable land is not
available.
 Hospital refuse which is particularly dangerous is best
disposed of by incineration.
 A preliminary separation of dust or ash is needed. All
this involves heavy outlay and expenditure, besides
manipulative difficulties in the incinerator. Further,
disposal of refuse by burning is a loss to the
community in terms of the much needed manure.
Burning, therefore, has a limited application in refuse
disposal in India.

18.  Composting is a method of combined disposal of
refuse and nightsoil or sludge.
 It is a process of nature whereby organic matter
breaks down under bacterial action resulting in the
formation of relatively stable humus-like material,
called the compost which has considerable
manurial value for the soil. The principal by-
products are carbon dioxide, water and heat.
 The heat produced during composting 60 deg C or
higher.

19. (1) Bangalore method (Anaerobic method),
(2) Mechanical composting (Aerobic method
 BANGALORE METHOD (Hot fermentation
process)
 Trenches are dug 90 cm (3 ft.) deep, 1.5 to 2.5 m
(5-8 ft.) broad and 4.5 to 10 m (15-30 ft.) long,
depending upon the amount of refuse and
nightsoil to be disposed off.
 Depths greater than 90 cm (3 ft.) are not
recommended because of slow decomposition.
The pits should be located not less than 800 m
(1/2 mile) from city limits.

20.  composting procedure :
 First a layer of refuse about 15 cm (6 in) thick is
spread at the bottom of the trench.
 Over this nightsoil is added corresponding to a
thickness of 5 cm (2 in). Then alternate layers of
refuse and nightsoil are added in the proportion of
15 cm (6 in) and 5 cm (2 in) respectively, till the
heap rises to 30 cm (1 ft.) above the ground level.
 The top layer should be of refuse, at least 25 cm (9
in) thickness. Then the heap is covered with
excavated earth.
 If properly laid, a man's legs will not sink when
walking over the compost mass

21.  MECHANICAL COMPOSTING
 The refuse is first cleared of salvageable materials
such as rags, bones, metal, glass and items which
are likely to interfere with the grinding operation.
 Then pulverised in a pulverising equipment in order
to reduce the size of particles to less than 2 inches.
The pulverised refuse is then mixed with sewage,
sludge or nightsoil in a rotating machine and
incubated.
 The factors which are controlled in the operation
are a certain carbon-nitrogen ratio, temperature,
moisture, pH and aeration. The entire process of
composting is complete in 4 to 6 weeks.

22.  In rural areas in India, there is no system for
collection and disposal of refuse. Refuse is thrown
around the houses indiscriminately resulting in
gross pollution of the soil.
 The problem of refuse disposal in rural areas can
be solved by digging 'manure pits' by the
individual householders. The garbage, cattle dung,
straw, and leaves should be dumped into the
manure pits and covered with earth after each
day's dumping

23.  Two such pits will be needed, when one is closed,
the other will be in use. In 5 to 6 month's time, the
refuse is converted into manure which can be
returned to the field.
 This method of refuse disposal is effective and
relatively simple in rural communities.

24.  This method is suitable for small camps.
 A trench 1.5 m wide and 2 m deep is excavated,
and at the end of each day the refuse is covered
with 20 to 30 cm of earth.
 When the level in the trench is 40 cm from ground
level, the trench is filled with earth and compacted,
and a new trench is dug out. The contents may be
taken out after 4 to 6 months and used on the
fields. If the trench is 1 m in length for every 200
persons, it will be filled in about one week .

25.  Biogas is produced by the “anaerobic breakdown
of solid waste/excreta.”
 Biogas (Methane, CO2, Hydrogen) can be used
as a fuel for any heating purpose, such as
cooking.

26. Health hazards of improper excreta disposal are
 Soil pollution
 Water pollution
 Contamination of foods
 Propagation of flies
It results in typhoid, paratyphoid fever, dysenteries,
diarrhea, cholera, hookworm disease, ascariasis,
viral hepatitis, intestinal and parasitic infection.

27.  Unsewered areas: (service type latrines, non
service type latrines, latrines suitable for camp
and temporary use)
 Sewered type: (water carriage system)
Primary treatment: (screening, removal of grit,
plain sedimentation)
Secondary treatment: (trickling filters and activated
sludge process)

28.  Other methods: (sea outfall, river outfall, sewage
farming and oxidation ponds)
 INSANITARY METHODS or service type latrines
-Open defecation
-Conservancy system/Cartage
 SANITARY METHODS or non-service type latrines
 Pit latrine- (dug well)
 Simple pit latrine
 VIP latrine
 ROEC
 Pour flush/Water seal latrine
 Direct (Shelter over pit) & indirect (Offset pit)
 Single pit & Double pit
 PRAI & RCA latrine

29.  Composting latrine
 Aquaprivy
 Septic Tank
 Sulabh Shauchalya
 Chemical closet
 Biogas plant
Latrines suitable for camps and temporary use:
 Trench latrine
 Shallow trench latrines
 Deep trench latrine
 Bore hole latrine
 WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM

30.  Open defecation and
 Cartage (Conservancy system)
 Examples: Bucket latrine
Disadvantages:
 Smell
 Flies
 Health risk to people handling the excreta
 Health risk from food crops fertilized with raw
excreta

31.  SIMPLE PIT LATRINE
 It is a simple wooden or concrete slab installed
over a pit of 2 m of more in depth.
 Excreta fall directly into the pit through a drop ole
or a seat. This type of latrine is a simple pit of
covered by a slab with a drop hole. A
superstructure is necessary to provide privacy and
protection.

33. Advantages:
 Relatively cheap
 Can be constructed by the user (particularly in
rural areas)
 Does not need water to function
 Easy to maintain
 Slab and shelter can be reused
Disadvantages:
 Considerable nuisance because of files, insects
(mosquitoes if pit is wet)
 Bad smell

34.  Ventilated improved pit latrine:
It is direct pit latrine without
water seal but with an inbuilt
ventilation system that eliminates
the foul odour and fly nuisance
associated with direct pit latrine.

35.  Reed Odourless Earth Closet:
 The Reed odourless earth closet (ROEC) is a
variation on the ventilated improved pit (VIP) toilet
where the pit is fully off-set from the Outhouse and
is connected to the squatting plate by a curved
chute.
 The ROEC is fitted with a vent pipe to control
odour and insect nuisance. It is claimed that the
chute, in conjunction with the ventilation stack,
encourages vigorous air circulation down the
toilet, thereby removing odours and discouraging
flies.
 This type of latrine is common in southern Africa.

36.  Pour flush latrines use a pit for excreta disposal and
have a special pan provided with a “water-seal” of 20-
30 mm
 They need 1-3 liters of water for flushing each time
they are used.
 Advantages
 No fly or smell problems & mosquitoes
 Easy maintenance
 Relatively cheap
 Agreeable to use
 Can be improved by a connection to a sewer network
at the right moment.
 Low water consumption 2-3 liters of water for each
flush

37.  Disadvantages
 Water is needed for
their operation
 More expensive than
pit latrines
 The use of solid cleansing
material is not advisable
(except paper)
 Skilled labor mason
is required

38.  PRAI Latrine was developed by the Planning,
Research & Action Institute, Lucknow
 RCA latrine was developed by the Research Cum
Action project off the Ministry of Health
 The RCA Latrine:
Location:
 Depends on porosity of soil and ground water
level
 Usually, at least 15 m away from water source

39. Squatting plate:
 Made of impervious material(cement)
 3’3’*2”
 Raised footsteps
Pan
 Receives nightsoil, urine and water
Trap
 A bent pipe connected to the pan
 Holds water and serves as a water seal (2 cm
depth)

40. Connecting pipe
 Needed when pit is sited away from squatting plate
 Not needed in Direct type RCA Latrine
 3.5” diameter with a bend at the end
The pit
 Covered, rectangular/circular
 75 cm diameter, 3-3.5 m deep
 Underneath squatting plate (Direct) or offset (Indirect)
Superstructure &Maintenance
 Regular cleaning of the squatting plate
 Flushing with 1-2 lts of water after every use
Modifications
 Using prefabricated squatting plate/pan made of
china clay
 Using a septic tank instead of the pit.

41.  Composting latrines are shallow vaults, into which
excreta, kitchen waste and similar wastes are
added.
 The waste & excreta breakdown together to
produce compost – fertilizer.
 Two shallow vaults are usually provided – when
one is full it is covered with soil and left for at least
two years – compost.
 The vaults must not receive water

42. Advantages
 Does not need to be moved and new vaults do not
have to be dug.
 Produces compost used as a fertilizer.
 Disposes kitchen waste a well.
Disadvantages
 More expensive and more difficult to build than
VIP or WS latrine

43.  The aquaprivy is s water tight tank filled with water into
which excreta fall via a drop pipe, connected to a
seepage pit (soak away) to dispose of sullage and
effluent.
 Drop pipe must reach below surface of the water.
Advantages
 Cannot be blacked with bulky anal cleaning material
 Nil problem with odor or flies.
 Can be connected to a sewerage system at later date.
Disadvantages;
 Expensive to build
 Need large volumes of water to work.
 Water seal may be hard to maintain
 Tanks must be emptied about every 3 years

44.  Septic tanks are watertight chambers (single,
double or multi chambered) which receive and
wastewater.
 They are connected to a soak way which receives
liquid overflowing from the tank.
 Working of Septic Tank:
 Solids (“sludge”) settle down and are purified by
anaerobic digestion.
 The liquids (“effluent”) undergoes aerobic
oxidation in the upper layers of the soil, outside
the septic tank proper.

45.  Advantages
 Isolation and treatment of excreta
 No odor or fly problems
 May be connected to sewerage system at a later
date.
 Disadvantages;
 High cost of construction
 Need for periodic mechanical emptying
 Need for large volumes of flushing water
 Only suitable where flush toilets are used

46.  A low cost, water seal type of latrine connected to
a 3’x3’x3’ pit. It is a modified hand flush latrine
with a specially designed pan and trap – needs
very little water for flusing.
 Sulabh International, an NGO, maintains Sulabh
Community Latrines – ‘pay – and – use system –
in many parts of India

47.  It consists of a metal tank containing a disinfectant
fluid (Formaldehydes). A seat with co er is placed
directly over the tank.
 Water should not be thrown into the tank.
 ECO SAN LATRINES (ECOLOGICAL
SANITATION LATRINES)
 Ecosan latrines that ensure the recovery of waste
by separating urine and faeces in view of their
reuse in the fertilization of soil for agricultural
purposes.

48. Advantages
 Recovery of urine and waste products
 No pollution of ground water
 Very hygienic
 Easy to maintain
 Does not need water to function
Disadvantages:
 Containers for urine storage are needed
 Water is not recommended for cleansing
 Addition of ash is required after every use
 Overhead pits require climbing stairs to access the
facility
 Skilled labor(manson)is required

49.  BOREHOLE LATRINE:
 Introduced in India by
Rockefeller foundation in 1930 ‘s
as a component of hookworm
control programme
 Consists of a circular hole
dug by an equipment called “auger”

50.  Sewage is waste water from a community,
containing solid and liquid excreta, derived from
houses, street, and yard washings’, factories, and
industries.

52.  To stabilize the organic matter contained in it by
breaking it down into simple substances which
cannot be decomposed further.
 To utilize the innocuous products of sewage
decomposition appropriately without any risk to
human health.
 To produce an effluent this is free from pathogens
and safe for being discharged into a water course.

53.  To protect pumping equipment and facilitate
subsequent treatment processes.
 Preliminary devices are designed to remove or cut
up the larger suspended and floating solids, to
remove the heavy inorganic solids, and to remove
excessive amounts of oils or greases.
 devices commonly used:
-Screens –rack, bar or fine
-Comminuting devices – grinders, cutters,
shredders
-Grit chambers
-Pre-aeration tanks

54.  most of the settle able solids are separated or
removed from the wastewater by the physical
process of sedimentation
 PURPOSE
 to reduce the velocity of the wastewater
sufficiently to permit solids to settle and floatable
material to surface.
 Therefore, primary devices may consist of settling
tanks, clarifiers or sedimentation tanks

55.  Secondary treatment depends primarily upon
aerobic organisms which biochemically
decompose the organic solids to inorganic or
stable organic solids

56.  additional treatment following secondary
treatment.
 Quite often this merely indicates the use of
intermittent sand filters for increased removal of
suspended solids from the wastewater

57. Benefits of a centralized wastewater system
 High removal of organic matter, nutrients and
pathogen bacteria
 Good adapted to urban areas
 Space required (0.5-2 Sqm/person)
 Good controllability
Disadvantages
 High cost in investment and operation
 requires highly skilled personal
 materials are often not locally available
 high water demand – for the operation of a sewer
network high water consumption is required to prevent
sewer clogging.
 Energy and large machinery necessary

58. Benefits of decentralized sanitation systems:
 The sewer network is much simpler and lower-
cost, than that of a centralized system.
 Also the costs in operating such a system are low,
because in most cases no energy is required
 No highly skilled personal is necessary for
operation
 The basic technology allows reliable operation.
 A significant reduction of pollutant output
Disadvantages
 It needs several treatment plants – each of them
need to be operated.
 The high demand in space could be a problem in
urban areas.

59.  Central pollution control board (CPCB) of India is
a statutory organization under the Ministry of
Environment and Forests.
 It was established in 1974 under Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
 .It serves as a field formation and also provides
technical services to the Ministry of Environment
and Forests of the provisions of the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986.

60.  CPCB, as spelt out in the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981,
aims to promote cleanliness of streams and wells
in different areas of the States by prevention,
control and abatement of water pollution, and to
improve the quality of air and to prevent, control
or abate air pollution in the country.
 Air Quality Monitoring is an important part of the
air quality management. The National Air
Monitoring Programme (NAMP) has been
established with objectives to determined the
present air quality status and trends and to control
and regulate pollution from industries and other
source to meet the air quality standards

61.  The parliament of India in its wisdom enacted the
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974 with a view to maintaining and restoring
wholesomeness of our water bodies. One of the
mandates of CPCB is to collect, collate and
disseminate technical statistical data relating to
water pollution. Hence, Water Quality Monitoring
(WQM) and Surveillance are of utmost importance

62.  to provide for the protection and improvement of
environment
 In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,
 “Environment” includes water, air and land and the
inter – relationship which exists among and between
water, air and land, and human beings, other living
creatures, plants, micro-organism and property;
 “Environmental pollutant” means any solid, liquid or
gaseous substance present in such concentration a s
may be, or tend to be, injurious to environment;
 “Environmental pollution” means the presence in the
environment of any environmental pollutant;

63.  “Handling”, in relation to any substance, means the
manufacture, processing, treatment, package,
storage, transportation, use, collection, destruction,
con version, offering for sale, transfer or the like of
such substance;
 ”Hazardous substance” means any substance or
preparation which, by reason of its chemical or physic
–chemical properties or handling, is liable to cause
harm to human beings, other living creatures, plant,
micro-organism, property or the environment;
 “Occupier”, in relation to any factory or premises,
means a person who has, control the affairs of the
factory or the premises and includes in relation to any
substance, th4e person in possession of the
substance;
 “Prescribed” means prescribed by rules made under
this Act

64.  DEFINITION:
 According to Bio-Medical Waste (Management
and Handling) Rules 1998 of India,
"Bio-medical waste" means any waste, which is
generated during the diagnosis, treatment
or immunization of human beings or animals or in
research activities pertaining thereto or in the
production or testing of biological, and including
categories

65. WASTE
CATEGORY
NO.
WASTE CATEGORY TREATMENT
AND DISPOSAL
1
Human anatomical waste(human
tissues,organs,body parts)
Incineration and deep
burial.
2
Animal waste Incineration and deep
burial.
3
Microbiology
and biotechnology waste
Local autoclaving/micro
waving/ incineration
4
Waste sharps
(needles, scapel blades,glass etc)
Disinfections(chemical
treatment/autoclaving/micr
owave and mutilation
shredding

66. 5
Discarded medicines and
cyto-toxic drugs
Incineration/destruction
and drugs disposal in
secured landfills
6
Solid waste(items contaminated with
blood and body fluids )
Incineration/autoclaving/
microwaving.
7
Solid waste(waste generated from
disposable items other than the waste
sharps such as tubing ,catheters
,intravenous sets)
Disinfections
By Chemical
treatment/autoclaving/micr
owaving
and mutilation shredding
8
Liquid waste Disinfection by chemical
treatment and discharge
into drains
9
Incineration ash(ash from incineration
biomedical waste )
Disposal in municipal
landfill
10
Chemical waste Chemical treatment and
discharge into drains for
liquids and secured landfill
for solids

68.  It is defined as a system resulting from the
integration of all living and non living organisms of
the environment.

69.  Ecosystem also defined as the basic functional
unit of ecology and consists of interacting
organisms and all aspects of environment in any
area.

70. Living organisms:
 It refers to biotic community and includes plants,
animals, and microbes.
 Plants in the presence of sunlight convert carbon-di-
oxide and water into carbohydrates, and thus
manufacture their own food. Plants are therefore
called as producers.
 Animals on other hand consume product of plants and
also animals. They are therefore called as
consumers.
 Microbes include bacteria, fungi, and insects break
down the dead organic matter, consume some of
decomposed products. They therefore called as
decomposers

71.  Non-living organisms:
 They are also called as biotic component. It
comprised of physical and chemical substance
which includes sunlight, water, oxygen, co2,
mineral, dead plats and animal matter.
 Other factor such as temperature, light, heat, wind
and rainfall. All these help in growth of the plants

73.  Everything is related to everything else
 Everything must go somewhere
 Nature knows best
 In order to preserve the nature anything which is
removed from the nature by the human efforts
must be replaced and anything which is added to
it must be removed

74. FACTORS AFFECTING THE
ECOSYSTEM

75.  HEALTH PROMOTION MODEL BY PENDERS
 defined 2 concepts:
 health promotion & health protection.
 Health promotion is defined as behavior motivated
by the desire to increase well-being and actualize
human health potential. It is an approach to
wellness.
 health protection or illness prevention is described
as behavior motivated desire to actively avoid
illness, detect it early, or maintain functioning
within the constraints of illness

77.  Village-Level Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices
on Solid Waste Management in Sta. Rosa City,
Laguna, Philippines
 Journal of Environmental Science and
Management 13(1):35-51(June 2010)
 Rosario V. Tatlonghari and Serlie B. Jamias

78.  RESULTS:
 Majority of the respondents knew and practiced
segregation, reuse and recycling.
 Most of the respondents also assumed
responsibility and stake at SWM.
 These respondents said that they usually decided
on these things and took the initiatives without
waiting for others to influence them.

80.  Books
 Park.K(2001).Textbook of preventive and social
medicine,22nd ed.,banarsidas bhanot: JABALPUR, pp 691-
698
 Piyush & ghai .o.p.(2007).Textbook of Preventive and
Social Medicine,21st ed., CBS publishers: NEW DELHI., pp
248-252
 Mathur ,J.S(2008).A Comprehensive Textbook of
Community Medicine, preventive and social medicine,.1 st
ed.,CBS publishers: New DELHI.,pp28-32
 Sunder,L & Pankaj .(2009).Textbook of community
medicine ,preventive and social medicine 3rd ed.,
noida:CBS publishes.pp 74-84
 Gulani ,k.k (2005).Principles and practices of community
health nursing.1st ed., kumar publishers :NEWDELHI. pp
245-256
 Basavanthappa.B.T.(2009).”community health nursing”4th
ed.,lordson publishers :NEWDELHI .,pp 161-186

81.  apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Js4885e/8.3.html
 www.healthinternetwork.com/water...health/medic
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 www.defence.gov.au/.../ADF%20Health%20Manu
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 www.cyen.org/innovaeditor/assets/Solid%20wast
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 www.ilo.org/oshenc/part.../514-solid-waste-
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 www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/materials/pubs/manu
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82. Thank
you….