The document discusses the different types of nucleic acids that viruses can use to store their genetic information, including double-stranded DNA, single-stranded DNA, double-stranded RNA, negative-sense RNA, positive-sense RNA, and positive-sense RNA retroviruses. It provides details on how each type replicates and produces viral mRNA.

1. Viral Genetics
 Viruses can store their genetic information in
six different types of nucleic acid
 which are named based on how that nucleic
acid eventually becomes transcribed to the
viral mRNA
 Only a (+) viral mRNA strand can be
translated into viral protein

2. Viral Genetics
 (+/-) double-stranded DNA
 DNA-dependent DNA polymerase enzymes copy both
the (+) and (-) DNA strands
 DNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzymes copy the
(-) DNA strand into (+) viral mRNA
 Examples include most bacteriophages,
Papovaviruses, Adenoviruses, and Herpesviruses

3. Replication of a Double-Stranded DNA Viral Genome and
production of Viral mRNA

4. Viral Genetics
 (+) single-stranded DNA
 DNA-dependent DNA polymerase enzymes copy the
(+) DNA strand of the genome producing a dsDNA
intermediate
 DNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzymes copy the
(-) DNA strand into (+) viral mRNA
 Phage M13 and Parvoviruses

5. Replication of a Single-Stranded DNA Viral Genome and
Production of Viral mRNA

6. Viral Genetics
 (+/-) double-stranded RNA
 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzymes copy both
the (+) RNA and (-) RNA strands of the genome
producing a dsRNA genomes
 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzymes copy the
(-) RNA strand into (+) viral mRNA
 Reoviruses

7. Replication of a Double-Stranded RNA Viral Genome
and Production of Viral mRNA

8. Viral Genetics
 (-) RNA
 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzymes then copy
the (+) RNA strands producing ss (-) RNA viral
genome
 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzymes then copy
the (+) RNA strands producing ss (-) RNA viral
genome
 Orthomyxoviruses, Paramyxoviruses, Rhabdoviruses

9. Replication of a Single-Stranded Minus RNA Viral
Genome and Production of Viral mRNA

10. Viral Genetics
 (+) RNA
 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzymes copy the
(+) RNA genome producing ss (-) RNA
 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzymes then copy
the (-) RNA strands producing ss (+) RNA viral
genome
 Picornaviruses, Togaviruses, and Coronaviruses

11. Replication of a Single-Stranded Plus RNA Viral Genome
and Production of Viral mRNA

12. Viral Genetics
 (+) RNA Retroviruses
 reverse transcriptase enzymes (RNA-dependent DNA
polymerases) copy the (+) RNA genome producing ss
(-) DNA strands
 DNA-dependent DNA polymerase enzymes then copy
the (-) DNA strands to produce a dsDNA intermediate
 DNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzymes then copy
the (-) DNA strands to produce ss (+) RNA genomes
 DNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzymes copy the
(-) DNA strand into (+) viral mRNA
 HIV-1, HIV-2, and HTLV-1

13. Replication of a Single-Stranded Plus RNA Viral Genome
and Production of Viral mRNA by way of Reverse
Transcriptase

14. Viral Genetics
 Viruses grow rapidly, there are usually a large
number of progeny virions per cell. There is,
therefore, more chance of mutations occurring over a
short time period
 Viruses undergo genetic change by several
mechanisms
 Genetic drift: where individual bases in the DNA or
RNA mutate to other bases
 Antigenic shift: where there is a major change in the
genome of the virus. This occurs as a result of
recombination

15. Mutants
 Spontaneous mutations
 These arise naturally during viral replication
(Replication, Tautomeric base pairing)
 DNA viruses tend to more genetically stable than
RNA viruses (DNA repair)
 Induced mutation by physical (UV light or X-rays) or
chemical means (nitrous acid)

16. Mutants
 Types of mutation
 point mutants
 insertion/deletion mutants

17. Phenotypic changes seen in virus mutants
 Conditional lethal mutants:These mutants multiply
under some conditions but not others
 A.temperature sensitive
 B.host range

18. Phenotypic changes seen in virus mutants
 Plaque size :may be larger or smaller than in the wild
type virus
 Drug resistance: The possibility of drug resistant
mutants arising must always be considered
 Enzyme-deficient mutants: Some viral enzymes are
not always essential and so we can isolate viable
enzyme-deficient mutants

19. Phenotypic changes seen in virus mutants
 "Hot" mutants
 These grow better at elevated temperatures than the
wild type virus.
 They may be more virulent since host fever may
have little effect on the mutants but may slow down
the replication of wild type virions

20. Phenotypic changes seen in virus mutants
 Attenuated mutants
 Many viral mutants cause much milder symptoms (or
no symptoms) compared to the parental virus - these
are said to be attenuated
 vaccine development

21. Recombination
 Exchange of genetic information between two
genomes
 "Classic" recombination :This involves breaking of
covalent bonds within the nucleic acid, exchange of
genetic information, and reforming of covalent bonds
 This kind of break/join recombination is common in
DNA viruses or those RNA viruses which have a DNA
phase (retroviruses). The host cell has recombination
systems for DNA

22. Recombination
 Recombination of this type is very rare in RNA viruses
(No host enzymes)
 "copy choice" kind of mechanism in which the
polymerase switches templates while copying the
RNA
 So far, there is no evidence for recombination in the
negative stranded RNA viruses giving rise to viable
viruses

23. Recombination

24. Reassortment
 Reassortment is a non-classical kind of recombination
 If a virus has a segmented genome and if two
variants of that virus infect a single cell, progeny
virions can result with some segments from one
parent, some from the other
 This is an efficient process - but is limited to viruses
with segmented genomes
 orthomyxoviruses, reoviruses, arenaviruses, bunya
viruses

25. Reassortment

26. Applied genetics
 vaccine called Flumist for influenza virus
 The vaccine is trivalent – it contains 3 strains of
influenza virus
 cold adapted strains: grow well at 25 degrees C
,grow in the upper respiratory tract
 temperature-sensitive and grow poorly in the warmer
lower respiratory tract
 viruses are attenuated strains and much less
pathogenic than wild-type virus

27. Applied genetics
 The vaccine technology uses reassortment to
generate reassortant viruses which have six gene
segments from the
 attenuated,
 cold-adapted virus
 and the HA and NA coding segments from the virus
which is likely to be a problem in the up-coming
influenza season

28. Applied genetics

29. Complementation
 Interaction at a functional level NOT at the nucleic
acid level
 two mutants with a ts (temperature-sensitive) lesion
in different genes
 neither can grow at a high temperature
 infect the same cell with both mutants, each mutant
can provide the missing function of the other and
therefore they can replicate

30. Multiplicity reactivation
 If double stranded DNA viruses are
inactivated using ultraviolet irradiation,
we often see reactivation if we infect
cells with the inactivated virus at a very
high multiplicity of infection?

31. Defective viruses
 Defective viruses lack the full complement of genes
necessary for a complete infectious cycle (many are
deletion mutants)
 they need another virus to provide the missing
functions - this second virus is called a helper virus

32. Defective interfering particles
 The replication of the helper virus may be less
effective than if the defective virus (particle) was not
there
 This is because the defective particle is competing
with the helper for the functions that the helper
provides
 This phenomenon is known as interference, and
defective particles which cause this phenomenon are
known as "defective interfering" (DI) particles
 Not all defective viruses interfere, but many do

33. Phenotypic mixing
 If two different viruses infect a cell, progeny viruses
may contain coat components derived from both
parents and so they will have coat properties of both
parents
 IT INVOLVES NO ALTERATION IN GENETIC
MATERIAL
 We can also get the situation where a coat is entirely
that of another virus