Module 2:Various views on human learning (Credit 1, Hours 15, Marks 25)
Objectives: After learning this module the student teacher will be able to -
- compare various views on human learning
- consider various roles of learner and teacher for planning of various learning
situations
Contents
1. Views on human learning with reference to (i) Concepts and principles of each view and
their applicability in different learning situations (ii) Relevance and applicability of
various theories of learning for different kinds of learning situations(iii) Role of learner
and teacher in various learning situations (15)
Behaviourist (conditioning by Pavlov and Skinner in brief),
Cognitivist ( views of Bruner and Ausubel)
Course 4
Learning and Teaching
SNDT Women’s University, Churchgate, Mumbai 20 . 23
Information-processing view(Atkinson Shifrin)
Humanist( Carl Rogers)
Social-constructivist ( Views of Piaget and Lev Vygotski)
TNTEU - B.Ed New Syllabus - Pedagogy of Mathematics - Semester 1 - Code BD1MA - Unit III Approaches for teaching - Bigge and Hunt Steps - Reflective Level of Teaching Advantages and Disadvantages - Conclusion
TNTEU - B.Ed New Syllabus - Pedagogy of Mathematics - Semester 1 - Code BD1MA - Unit III Approaches for teaching - H. C Morrison Steps - Understanding Level of Teaching Advantages and Disadvantages - Conclusion
TNTEU - B.Ed New Syllabus - Pedagogy of Mathematics - Semester 1 - Code BD1MA - Unit III Approaches for teaching - Bigge and Hunt Steps - Reflective Level of Teaching Advantages and Disadvantages - Conclusion
TNTEU - B.Ed New Syllabus - Pedagogy of Mathematics - Semester 1 - Code BD1MA - Unit III Approaches for teaching - H. C Morrison Steps - Understanding Level of Teaching Advantages and Disadvantages - Conclusion
Meaning of interaction
Classroom inetraction(Characterstics, types and objectives)
Interaction Analysis
Classroom Interaction Analysis
Flanders Interaction Analysis
Advantages of FIACS
Limitations of FIACS
behavioral theory formed the basis of most of the learning theory applied in child rearing and in classrooms. Parents and teachers still find that, in many instances, individuals do learn when provided with the appropriate blend of stimuli, rewards, negative reinforcement, and punishments. Especially with small children and simpler tasks, behavioral principles are often effective.
Eventually, however, educators began to feel that although stimulus-response does explain many human behaviors and has a legitimate place in instruction, behaviorism alone was not sufficient to explain all the phenomena observed in learning situations. The teacher’s are able to use this approach but they have to consider about the weaknesses and try to solve the weaknesses.
This Presentation successes the following subtopics:
What is Rote Learning
Advantages and Disadvantages
What is Meaningful Learning
Characteristics and Goals
Advantages and Disadvantages
Rote vs Meaningful Learning (Loop, Outcomes,Graph)
Behaviorism school of thought in psychologyNadeemShoukat3
Ishallah this video help you to comprehend about behaviorism school of thought, its major thinker, major experiment, advantages and disadvantages and much more
Meaning of interaction
Classroom inetraction(Characterstics, types and objectives)
Interaction Analysis
Classroom Interaction Analysis
Flanders Interaction Analysis
Advantages of FIACS
Limitations of FIACS
behavioral theory formed the basis of most of the learning theory applied in child rearing and in classrooms. Parents and teachers still find that, in many instances, individuals do learn when provided with the appropriate blend of stimuli, rewards, negative reinforcement, and punishments. Especially with small children and simpler tasks, behavioral principles are often effective.
Eventually, however, educators began to feel that although stimulus-response does explain many human behaviors and has a legitimate place in instruction, behaviorism alone was not sufficient to explain all the phenomena observed in learning situations. The teacher’s are able to use this approach but they have to consider about the weaknesses and try to solve the weaknesses.
This Presentation successes the following subtopics:
What is Rote Learning
Advantages and Disadvantages
What is Meaningful Learning
Characteristics and Goals
Advantages and Disadvantages
Rote vs Meaningful Learning (Loop, Outcomes,Graph)
Behaviorism school of thought in psychologyNadeemShoukat3
Ishallah this video help you to comprehend about behaviorism school of thought, its major thinker, major experiment, advantages and disadvantages and much more
This PPT contains topic Learning from Unit 3 Cognitive Process of the subject Psychology for F.Y.B.SC.Nursing.
Learning, as a cognitive process, involves acquiring knowledge, skills, understanding, and behaviors through experience, study, practice, or teaching. It's a fundamental aspect of human cognition, enabling individuals to adapt, solve problems, make decisions, and improve their performance in various domains of life. Cognitive processes play a critical role in how we perceive, encode, store, and retrieve information during the learning process.
Evolution of Democracy by Samruddhi Chepe.pptxSamruddhi Chepe
Phase OneAssembly Democracy
Starting around 2,500 BCE, in lands now within the territories of Iran, Iraq and Syria
“During the first phase of democracy the seeds of its basic institution – self-government through an assembly of equals – were scattered across many different soils and climes, ranging from the Indian subcontinent and the prosperous Phoenician empire to the western shores of provincial Europe.
These popular assemblies took root, accompanied by various ancillary institutional rules and customs, like written constitutions, the payment of jurors and elected officials, the freedom to speak in public, voting machines, voting by lot and trial before elected or selected juries. There were efforts as well to stop bossy leaders in their tracks, using such methods as the mandatory election of kings…” (The Life and Death of Democracy, p.xvi)
Best-known example – Athens, 5th century BCE
Athenian Democracy
Direct democracy: citizens (about 10% of the population) participated directly in initiating, deliberating, and passing of, the legislation. The Assembly, no less than 6,000 strong (out of 22,000 citizens of Athens), convened about every 10 days. Supreme power to decide on every issue of state policy
Citizen juries: justice is responsibility of citizens (juries composed of 501-1001 citizens)
Appointment of citizens to political office by lot
Citizen-soldiers: every citizen had a duty to serve in the army
Ostracism: a bad politician could be kicked out of office by the people
Phase TwoRepresentative Democracy
Started around 10th-12th centuries in Western Europe with the invention of parliamentary assemblies
Reaches its classic forms in the 18th century. Officially regarded as normative today.
Marquis d’Argenson, Foreign Minister of French King Louis XV, 1765.
Phase Two
The Glorious revolution laid the foundation of the first democratic principles of the Rule of Law.
Earlier it was believed that the king was the ‘representative of the God’ and that the King’s wishes were the law.
The people strongly protested the idea and dethroned King James II of England.
They passed the Bill Of Rights which firmly stated that the country should be governed by the laws passed by the people and not by the whims of the king.
The French Revolution took place between 1789 and 1851.
In the revolution King Louis XVI was executed .
It was decided that the country should be ruled by the laws passed by the people.
It laid down the ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man’ which highlighted that liberty, Equality etc. were important in a Democracy.
In 1792, France became a Republic.
Phase Three Monitory Democracy
(term coined by John Keane)- After World War II
Increase citizen ability to control the state which is organized on the basis of representative democracy
Public integrity commissionsJudicial activismLocal courtsWorkplace tribunalsCitizens assembliesThink tanksThe InternetEtc.
How much power do they have? And whose interests do they serve?
Key
Skill of Probing Questions
Samruddhi Chepe
Questioning to promote higher-order Thinking
To open new ideas and creative mental habits
An open-ended- Which encourage divergent thinking
Nurturing educational environment strengthens the brain
Taxonomy of Benjamin Bloom
Categorized level of abstraction of questions-
Knowledge-List, define, tell, describe, identify, show, label, collect, examine, tabulate, quote, name, who, when, where, etc.
Comprehension- Summarize, describe, interpret, contrast, predict, associate, distinguish, estimate, differentiate, discuss, extend
Application- Apply, demonstrate, calculate, complete, illustrate, show, solve, examine, modify, relate, change, classify, experiment, discover
Strategies to make classrooms more interrogative
Use the think-pair-share strategy to allow students to respond to questions cooperatively
Avoid predictable question patterns
Ask students to “unpack their thinking”
Promote active listening by asking for summaries
Ask students why they hold a particular position or point of view on a subject
Survey the class
Encourage student-constructed questions
Use hypothetical thinking
Employ reversals
Apply different symbol
Use analogies
Analyze points of view
Questioning skill
Structure-
Grammatically correct
Relevant
Specific
Concise
Process-
Speed of asking questions
Voice
Unnecessary repetition of questions as well as students’ answers
Distribution
Product-
Interest created, attentiveness
Rapport built
Previous knowledge of pupils
Maturity level of pupils
Difficulty level of questions
Avoid
Questions requiring yes or no answers
Leading, suggestive questions
Double barreled questions
Elliptical questions
General/ambiguous questions
Terms beyond the understanding of students
Rhetorical questions
Unnecessary repetition of questions
Unnecessary repetition of answers given by students
Answering your own
Showing anger, impatience, ridicule for wrong, inadequate or slow answer
Asking only the recall/memory based questions
Responses
No response
Wrong response
Partially correct response
Incomplete response
Correct (criterion) response
The components of skill of probing questions
Prompting- No response, a partially correct response or wrong response
Seeking further information- When response obtained from the student is incomplete
Refocusing- Correct response, to view students responses in relation to other similar situations
Increasing Critical Awareness-To increase student ability to look at situations deeply, critically
Criterion Response- To clear ideas and to get correct response
Guidelines……
Questions were grammatically correct
Questions were relevant to the top
Questions were specific
Questions were concise
Questions were put with paper pause
Questions were followed by proper pause
Questions were put with proper voice
Skill of Reinforcement
Need
Reinforcement is a term taken from Psychology of Learning. It is directly related with the learning of students. The term implies for the use of technique for influencing behaviour of individuals in the desired direction.
The concept is based on Hedonistic principle which states that an individual tends to repeat the pleasant experiences and avoid the unpleasant ones.
Thorndike’s Laws of Learning
Law of Readiness
Law of Repetition
Law of Effect
The third law is directly related to the skill of reinforcement. The action having pleasant results are learnt better.
Importance
Reinforcement hence constitutes one of the essential conditions of learning. It motivates and increases the speed of learning. The behaviour of the learner can be controlled and changed and thus can help learning.
Related Study ….
Pavlov
Skinner
Pavlov’s Classical conditioning
Skinner’s Operant conditioning
Objectives
To arrest the attention of the pupils and increase pupil’s verbal /nonverbal participation during teaching-learning process.
To use reinforcers selectively.
To motivate the pupils.
To control the destructive behaviour of pupils.
To provide feedback about the appropriateness of the feedback of the pupil.
Reinforcers
The stimuli that provide or contribute to the pleasant experience are called positive reinforcers, while the stimuli providing unpleasant experiences can be termed as negative reinforcers.
Positive reinforcers are used for strengthening the responses or behaviours and negative are used for eliminating the undesirable responses.
Reinfocers can be verbal as well as nonverbal.
The types of reinforcers are-
Types of Reinforcers
Positive Verbal Reinforcers Ex-good, yes, correct
Positive Non Verbal Reinforcers Ex-Smile , nod, patting
Negative Verbal Reinforcers Ex- No, Wrong, incorrect
Negative Nonverbal Reinforcers Ex- Frowning, shaking head.
Extra Verbal Reinforcers Ex-aah, hmm, unh-hun
Desirable Components
Acceptance
Supportive Denial
Praise
Acceptance with Personal Reference
Positive Non- Verbal Cues
Undesirable Components
Inappropriate use of verbal reinforcers.
Negative Verbal Cues
Lack of Reinforcement
Negative Non-Verbal Cues
Thank You
Models of Teaching
How do models and methods of teaching differ?
Teaching is an interactive process, primarily involving class room talk which takes place between teacher and pupil and occurs during certain definable activity.
A teaching method comprises the principles and methods used for instruction. Commonly used teaching methods may include class participation, demonstration, recitation, memorization, or combination of these.
Models of teaching are nothing but planning of lesson to formulate its structure and outline useful for successful teaching.
American Educationists Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weill have invented these models of teaching.
5 aspects of a Model-
Objectives of a Model
Syntax
Support System
Social System
Principles of Reaction
Inquiry Training Model
Suchman’s Inquiry Training Model
J. Richard Suchman presented his model in the United States in 1962.
This model is designed to assist students in developing the skills required to raise questions and seek out answers stemming from their curiosity
Suchman’s Theory:-
Student inquire when they are puzzled.
They can become conscious of and learn to analyze their thinking strategies.
New strategies of thinking can be taught.
Co-operative inquiry enriches thinking, helps student to learn about the tentative nature of knowledge & to appreciate alternative explanations.
When do we use this model
The Suchman’s Inquiry Training Model is most commonly used in
Science
Social Studies
Languages in Story Telling
Objectives of Inquiry Training Model
To develop scientific process skills-observing, collecting, and organizing data, formulating hypothesis, testing etc
To develop among students the strategies for creative inquiry.
To develop among students an independence or autonomy in learning.
To develop among students the ability to tolerate ambiguity.
To make students realize that all knowledge is tentative.
To develop verbal expressiveness among students.
Syntax
Phase I - Presentation of discrepant event
Phase II - Data gathering: Verification
Phase III - Data Gathering :Experimentation
Phase IV - Formulation of explanation
Phase V - Analysis of Inquiry process.
Phase I - Presentation of Discrepant (inconsistent) Event
Confrontation with the problem.
Explain inquiry procedures.
Present discrepant event.
Phase II- Data gathering : Verification(Yes/No)
Verify the nature of object & condition.
Verify the occurrence of the problem.
Phase III- Data Gathering :Experimentation (‘If‘)
Isolate relevant variables .
Hypothesize.
Phase IV- Formulation of Explanation
Organizing, formulating explanation
Formulate rules, explanations.
Phase V -Analysis of Inquiry Process
Analysis of Inquiry process.
Analyze Inquiry strategy.
Develop more effective ones.
Social System
The teacher exercises control over the interactions.
All the ideas are open for discussion.
Teachers and pupils participate as equal partners.
Support System
A set of confronting materials and resources relate
Modern Trends in Evaluation
Unit 5
Syllabus of Unit 5-
5.2.1- Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation
5.2.2 -Modern Trends in Evaluation
5.2.3 -Constructivist Assessment
5.2.4 -Examination Reforms and Question Bank
5.2.5 -Areas of Research in Evaluation
Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation-
Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) is an educational assessment strategy that goes beyond traditional examination-oriented assessments.
It aims to evaluate a student's performance in a holistic manner, considering various aspects of their learning and development throughout the academic year.
CCE has been introduced to shift the focus from rote learning and exam scores to a more comprehensive understanding of a student's capabilities.
It is a shift towards a more student-centric and holistic approach to education.
CCE implemented effectively, can contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of a student's abilities and encourage a broader range of skills and competencies beyond academic achievements.
CCE Meaning-
CCE is a process of evaluating the child’s development in all the school-related activities.
This proposal was directed under the Right to Education Act in 2009 by the Central Board of Secondary Education of India and the state governments in India.
Using CCE, teachers can diagnose learners' deficiencies using a variety of assessment activities.
After completing the assessment activities, learners are given valuable feedback.
The teacher guides and supports them to identify the problems.
Aim Of Continuous And Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)-
Evaluate and guide the students in all aspects of education
Improve learning outcomes by focusing on skills and cognitive abilities of students
Encourage regular assessment and constructive criticism
Reduce stress and pressure on students
Enable the instructors with prolific teaching
Functions Of Continuous And Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)-
Helps in the development of new and effective teaching strategies
Aids regular assessment to understand student’s progress
Helps to understand the weaknesses and strengths of students
Enables the teacher to understand problems faced by students and make changes in teaching techniques
Encourages self-assessment among the students
Helps students to develop good habits, work on their weaknesses and correct the errors
It gives an idea about the change in student’s attitudes and values
It gives reports about student’s progress over a period of time
Reduced Exam Stress
Encourages Participation
Identifies Learning Gaps
Challenges in Implementing CCE and Role of Teacher-
Challenges:
Implementation Issues: CCE may face challenges in terms of effective implementation and standardization across different educational institutions.
Assessment Load: Managing continuous assessments can be demanding for both teachers and students.
Teacher's Role:
Facilitator of Learning: Teachers play a crucial role in creating an environment that promotes learning and development.
Regular F
Evaluation Unit 4
Statistics in the View point of Evaluation
Unit 4 Syllabus-
4.2.1- Measuring Scales- Meaning and Statistical Use
4.2.2- Conversion and interpretation of Test Score
4.2.3- Normal Probability Curve
4.2.4- Central Tendency and its importance in Evaluation.
4.2.5- Dimensions of Deviation
The Unit 4 is all about Statistics…
Statistics is the study of the collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation, and organization of data.
In other words, it is a mathematical discipline to collect, summarize data.
Also, we can say that statistics is a branch of applied mathematics.
Statistics is simply defined as the study and manipulation of data. As we have already discussed in the introduction that statistics deals with the analysis and computation of numerical data.
Projective methods of Evaluation through Statistics-
Measurement is a process of assigning numbers to individuals or their characteristics according to specific rules.” (Eble and Frisbie, 1991, p.25).
This is very common and simple definition of the term ‘measurement’.
You can say that measurement is a quantitative description of one’s performance. Gay (1991) further simplified the term as a process of quantifying the degree to which someone or something possessed a given trait, i.e., quality, characteristics, or features.
Measurement assigns a numeral to quantify certain aspects of human and non-human beings.
It is numerical description of objects, traits, attributes, characteristics or behaviours.
Measurement is not an end in itself but definitely a means to evaluate the abilities of a person in education and other fields as well.
Measurement Scale-
Whenever we measure anything, we assign a numerical value. This numerical value is known as scale of measurement. A scale is a system or scheme for assigning values or scores to the characteristics being measured (Sattler, 1992). Like for measuring any aspect of the human being we assign a numeral to quantify it, further we can provide an order to it if we know the similar type of measurement of other members of the group, we can also make groups considering equal interval scores within the group.
Psychologist Stanley Stevens developed the four common scales of measurement:
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval &
Ratio
Each scale of measurement has properties that determine how to properly analyze the data.
Nominal scale-
In nominal scale, a numeral or label is assigned for characterizing the attribute of the person or thing.
That caters no order to define the attribute as high-low, more-less, big-small, superior-inferior etc.
In nominal scale, assigning a numeral is purely an individual matter.
It is nothing to do with the group scores or group measurement.
Statistics such as frequencies, percentages, mode, and chi-square tests are used in nominal measurement.
Examples include gender (male, female), colors (red, blue, green), or types of fruit (apple, banana, orange).
Ordinal scale-
Ordinal scale is synonymous to ranking or g
Unit 3 : Assessment and various aspects of evaluation
Syllabus of Unit 3-
3.2.1- Evaluation of different aspects of Human being
3.2.2 – Models of Evaluation
3.2.3 - Evaluation for Mastery Learning
3.2.4 - Feedback Techniques
3.2.5 – Role of Educator as an Evaluator
3.2.1- Evaluation of different aspects of Human being
Attitude Test
Intelligence Test
Interest Inventory
Aptitude Assessment
Creativity Test
Attitude Test-
An attitude test is a type of psychological assessment designed to measure an individual's opinions, beliefs, and feelings about a particular subject or set of subjects. Attitude tests are commonly used in various fields, including psychology, sociology, marketing, and human resources, to understand how individuals perceive and respond to different stimuli.
Attitude tests can be structured in different ways, and they often use scales or questionnaires to gather information about an individual's attitudes. Here are some key points about attitude tests:
Open-ended Questions: Attitude tests may also include open-ended questions to allow respondents to express their opinions and thoughts in their own words. This provides a more qualitative understanding of attitudes.
Attitude Components: Attitude tests often assess three main components of attitudes:
Cognitive Component: The beliefs and thoughts an individual holds about a particular subject.
Affective Component: The emotions and feelings associated with a particular subject.
Behavioral Component: The intended or actual behavior related to the attitude.
Thurstone Method-
In psychology and sociology, the Thurstone scale was the first formal technique to measure an attitude.
It was developed by Louis Leon Thurstone in 1928, originally as a means of measuring attitudes towards religion. Today it is used to measure attitudes towards a wide variety of issues.
Likert Scales-
Here individuals rate their agreement or disagreement with a series of statements. For example, respondents might be asked to indicate how strongly they agree or disagree with statements such as "I enjoy working in a team" or "I feel confident in my abilities."
The Likert scale is used to measure the intensity of an individual's agreement or disagreement with a particular statement or set of statements.
Named after its creator, psychologist Rensis Likert, this scale is designed to capture the strength and direction of a person's attitude towards a given subject.
Scale Structure:
Respondents are presented with a series of statements related to the topic of interest.
Each statement is accompanied by a scale of response options, typically ranging from "Strongly Disagree" to "Strongly Agree."
Overall, the Likert scale is a versatile and widely used tool for assessing attitudes in various fields, including psychology, sociology, education, and business. Its simplicity and ease of use make it a popular choice for both researchers and practitioners.
Importance of Attitude Scale-
Attitude tests are used in various contexts,
Assessment and evaluation- A new perspective
Unit 2- Tests and its Application
Syllabus of Unit 2
Testing- Concept and Nature
Developing and Administering Teacher Developed Tests
Characteristics of a good Test
Standardization of Test
Types of Tests- Psychological Test, Reference Test, Diagnostic Tests
2.2.1. Introduction-
Teachers construct various tools for the assessment of various traits of their students.
The most commonly used tools constructed by a teacher are the achievement tests. The achievement tests are constructed as per the requirement of a particular class and subject area they teach.
Besides achievement tests, for the assessment of the traits, a teacher observes his students in a classroom, playground and during other co-curricular activities in the school. The social and emotional behavior is also observed by the teacher. All these traits are assessed. For this purpose too, tools like rating scales are constructed.
Evaluation Tools used by the teacher may both be standardized and non-standardised.
A standardized tool is one which got systematically developed norms for a population. It is one in which the procedure, apparatus and scoring have been fixed so that precisely the same test can be given at different time and place as long as it pertains to a similar type of population. The standardized tools are used in order to:
Compare achievements of different skills in different areas
Make comparison between different classes and schools They have norms for the particular population. They are norm referenced.
On the other hand, teachers make tests as per the requirements of a particular class and the subject area they teach. Hence, they are purposive and criterion referenced. They want:
to assess how well students have mastered a unit of instruction;
to determine the extent to which objectives have been achieved;
to determine the basis for assigning course marks and find out how effective their teaching has been.
So our syllabus here revolves around the Tests.
2.2.2- Developing and Administering Teacher Developed Tests-
2.2.3-CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD MEASURING INSTRUMENT -
1. VALIDITY-
Any measuring instruments must fulfill certain conditions. This is true in all spheres, including educational evaluation.
Test validity refers to the degree to which a test accurately measures what it claims to measure. It is a critical concept in the field of psychometrics and is essential for ensuring that a test is meaningful and useful for its intended purpose. It is the test is meant to examine the understanding of scientific concept; it should do only that and should not be attended for other abilities such as his style of presentation, sentence patterns or grammatical construction. Validity is specific rather than general criterion of a good test. Validity is a matter of degree. It may be high, moderate or low.
There are several types of validity, each addressing different aspects of the testing process:
1. Face-validity, 2.Content
Unit 1.Evaluation, Assessment and Measurement pptxSamruddhi Chepe
Assessment and evaluation- Modern Viewpoint
Syllabus-
Concept of Assessment and Evaluation
Tests and its Application
Various aspects of Assessment and Evaluation
Statistics in Evaluation
Modern Trends in Assessment
Unit 1-Concept of Assessment and evaluation
Syllabus of Unit 1-
Measurement and Assessment-- Meaning, Nature, Need, Importance, and Scope
Evaluation-Meaning, Nature, Need, Importance, and Scope
Functions of Evaluation, Measurement and Assessment in Education
Interrelationship between Educational Objectives, Learning Experiences and Evaluation
Various Types of Evaluation and its Limitations
1.2.1-Measurement - Meaning
Measurement has been the practice with teachers since a very long time. They have been testing their students and assigning numbers regarding the progress of their students in studies, and adopt corrective measures accordingly.
According to Bradfield & Moredock (1957), ‘Measurement is the process of assigning symbols to the dimension of phenomenon in order to characterize the status of phenomenon as precisely as possible’. Measurement is the process by which a characteristic of an object, person or activity is perceived and understood on specific standards and is described in standard words, symbols or definite units.
Measurement requires the use of numbers but does not require the value judgments be made about the numbers obtained from the process. We measure achievement with a test by counting the number of test items a student answers correctly, and we use exactly the same rule to assign a number to the achievement of each, student in the class.
Example: Raman got 93 marks in a test of Mathematics. Measurement is all about the numbers and being able to quantify the performance or the abilities. Measurements are more objective as they have numerical standards to compare and record. It answers the question “how much”.
Scope of Measurement in Education
The scope of educational measurement includes measurement of educational achievement, intelligence, interest, ability, aptitude, and other traits of students. Using methods, tests, tools, and activities to determine a student's level and what he or she has learned and developed.
Need and Importance of Measurement in Education–
Measurement also helps in considering external assessment for the students, and it helps in understanding the cognitive areas of the individual.
Measuring and evaluating pupils' progress is helpful in establishing how much they have learnt.
Without measuring and analyzing what he has taught, the instructor would be unable to determine how far his students have progressed.
History of Indian Education System
India has a rich history of academia and the formal dissemination of education. We are aware of the Gurukuls of ancient India, where pupils were taught several subjects that prepared them for survival in the world. Since then, the subcontinent's cultural climate has massively shaped how the youth are instructed about the ways of the world and how they contribute to it. The following text systematically examines this progression.
The Upanishads and Dharanshastras can be used to trace the origins of education in ancient India. The idea of Gurukulas is the most significant gift of the old Indian educational system. Unfortunately, the Gurukula educational system is unquestionably declining despite numerous initiatives to Indianize our education via organizations like Vishwa Bharti University, Sri Aurobindo University, Jarnia Millia International, Vidya Bhawan, and Banasthatividyapith, to mention just a few. Candidates from all over the world flocked to ancient Indian institutions like Takshashila and Nalanda, which were renowned for the calibre of their education.
While the British promoted education in India for purely selfish reasons, credit must be given to them for establishing the superior western educational system, which is unquestionably responsible for the current Indian educational system. Though it remains an ideal that has not been completely achieved, the Indian Constitution after Independence provided particular provisions for the promotion of education at different levels through the achievement of universal and compulsory schooling. The Indian government appointed numerous consultants to evaluate the Indian educational system at various stages and times. The Indian government did everything it could to promote education. The nation has unquestionably made significant progress in all areas of education, but we were never able to reach the magnificent ideal of universal kindergarten education or total literacy.
Vedic Spiritual Beginnings
Education in ancient India was closely tied to religious and spiritual practices and was primarily the domain of religious teachers and scholars. Education in ancient India was focused on the study of scriptures and the development of spiritual knowledge and wisdom. It was largely centered around religious institutions such as temples, monasteries, and ashrams. In ancient India, education was largely an oral tradition, with knowledge being passed down through generations of teachers and students. Students typically begin their education at a young age and study under a guru or spiritual teacher for many years. The education system in ancient India was highly hierarchical, with the guru at the top and the students at the bottom. The curriculum in ancient India was largely focused on studying scriptures and spiritual texts, such as the Vedas, the Upanishads, and the Bhagavad Gita. Students would also study subjects such as Sanskrit, grammar, logic, and ethics. Education
Logical or deductive reasoning involves using a given set of facts or data to deduce other facts by reasoning logically. It involves drawing specific conclusions based on premises. Reasoning is the process of using existing knowledge to draw conclusions, make predictions, or construct explanations. Three methods of reasoning are the deductive, inductive, and abductive approaches. The development of Indian logic dates back to the anviksiki of Medhatithi Gautama (c. 6th century BCE); the Sanskrit grammar rules of Pāṇini (c. 5th century BCE); the Vaisheshika school's analysis of atomism (c. 6th century BCE to 2nd century BCE); the analysis of inference by Gotama.
Module 2: Planning of teaching Science and Technology (Credit 1, Hours 15, Marks 25)
Objectives: After learning this module the student teacher will be able to-
- explain importance and characteristics of planning
- plan for teaching major concepts, principles and theories of Science and Technology
at school level
- design co-curricular activities for Science learning
Contents
1. Importance and characteristics of good planning(1)
2. Planning for designing learning experiences, field visits, activities and developing
instructional material for teaching following content:(12)
Properties and states of matter, structure of atom, Plant and animal cells, classification of
plants and animals, diseases and their prevention, kinematic equations, modern periodic
table, Electricity, lenses and mirrors, life processes, life cycle, Origin of life and
evolution, Heat, Electricity, Magnetism, Light, Contribution of eminent scientists such as
Isaac Newton, Dalton, Neils Bohr, Darwin, J. C. Bose, C. V. Raman, Albert Einstein, etc.
3. Planning for organizing various co-curricular activities such as debate, drama, poster
making on issues related to science/biology, Day celebrations such as Science Day, Earth
Day, Environment Day, etc(2)
Total Credits: 4; Marks: 100; Hours: 60 for theory excluding hours to be spent by student
teachers for completing assignments
Note: Figures in the bracket show hours for curriculum transaction
Module 1: Understanding Curriculum and Aims of Science and Technology (Credit 1,
Hours 15, Marks 25)
Objectives: After learning this module the student teacher will be able to-
- explain the nature and structure of science
- understand the aims of Science education
- plan for imbibing values through Science teaching
- write instructional objectives of teaching of a topic
- analyze features of existing curriculum of Science and Technology in the light of
NCF 2005 and principles of curriculum development
- establish correlation of Science with other subjects
Contents :
1. Nature and Structure of Science: Characteristics and functions of Science and
Technology, Branches of Science; Facts, concepts, principles, laws and theories in
context of science (3)
2. Aims of teaching Science and Technology:(2)
3. Developing scientific attitude and scientific temper
4. Nurturing the natural curiosity, aesthetic senses and creativity in Science
5. Acquiring the skills to understand the method and process of science that lead to
exploration, generation and validation of knowledge in science
6. Relating Science education to the environment (natural environment, artifacts and
people)
7. Solving problems of everyday life
8. Values and Learning Science: Imbibing the values of honesty, integrity, cooperation,
concern for life and preservation of environment, health, peace, equity (2)
9. Objectives at upper primary and secondary school level as given by State curriculum (1)
10. Determining acceptable evidences that show learners‘ understanding with the help of
Bloom and Anderson‘s hierarchy of objectives of teaching ( 2)
11. Expectations about constructivist science teaching in NCF 2005, General principles of
curriculum development and Trends in Science curriculum; Consideration in developing
learner centered curriculum in science, Analysis of Features of existing curriculum of
science and technology at upper primary and secondary school level and textbooks(4)
12. Establishing correlation of Science with other school subjects and life(1)
Module 1 of SNDT University of FYBEd.
A numerical reasoning test is an aptitude test measuring ability to perform calculations and interpret data in the form of charts. There are five common types of numerical reasoning tests: calculation, estimation, number sequence, word problem, and data interpretation. Most of them are in multiple-choice format. Numerical ability is defined as the capacity to comprehend, reason about, and apply basic numerical ideas. Understanding basic arithmetical operations such as additions, reduction, multiply, and divisions constitute basic numeracy abilities. How do you prepare numerical ability?
Our final top numerical reasoning test tips
Numerical Test Tip 1: Understand the questions. ...
Numerical Test Tip 2: Bring your own calculator. ...
Numerical Test Tip 3: Know your calculator. ...
Numerical Test Tip 4: Use the rough paper. ...
Numerical Test Tip 5: Consider only the options available. What are numeracy skills? Numeracy skills refer to the ability to use, interpret and communicate mathematical information to solve real-world problems. These include the ability to understand basic math like addition, subtraction, division and multiplication.
Present ppt can be useful for B.Ed. CET.
Module 1: Learner as a Developing Individual (Credit 1, Hours 15, Marks 25)
Objectives : After learning this module the student teacher will be able to-
- explain concept and stages of growth and development
- bring out relationship between development and environmental factors
- elaborate developmentally appropriate learning opportunities based on brain research
- explain relationship of development with learning
- organize activities according to different roles of learner
Contents:
1. Concept of growth and development and principles of development(2 periods)
2. Growth and development across various stages from infancy to post adolescence
(Special emphasis on concerns of later childhood and adolescence) (2 periods)
3. Developmental Influences: Development as a resultant of interactions between individual
potential (innate, acquired) and external environment (physical, socio-cultural, ecological,
economic and technological). Nature and nurture, growth and maturation.(3 periods)
4. Growth and development of brain and its lifelong impact:
Brain development and language development
Functions of brain
Windows of opportunities
Left brain and right brain functions
Concept of 'developmentally appropriate' learning opportunities, getting education for
appropriate parenting. Guidelines provided by neuroscience with respect to designing
and developing appropriate learning environment. (4)
5. Relationship between development and learning, Viewing different roles of learners and
organization of classroom activities accordingly- Learner as Imitator, Knower, Thinker,
knowledge worker, Performer, Implications for teachers to develop holistic understanding of
the learner (4)
Inclusive education means all children in the same classrooms, in the same schools. It means real learning opportunities for groups who have traditionally been excluded – not only children with disabilities, but speakers of minority languages too. Current content deals with the Module 1 of Inclusive Education as per S.Y.B.Ed. SNDT University Syllabus.
Module: 3 Understanding Right to Education(Credit: 1, hours: 15, Marks: 25)
Objectives: After learning this module the student teacher will be able to-
- explain the nature of RTE.
- elaborate the objectives and features of RTE.
- elaborate the provisions of RTE.
- create teaching and evaluation strategies for RTE
- explain duties and responsibilities of school and teachers
- evaluate the role of stakeholder, parents, media and government organization in
implementation of RTE.
Content:
1. Nature, need and importance of RTE in India.(2)
2. History of RTE: Directive principles of state policy, laws and commission regarding
Indian education, UNO declaration about child‘s Rights, RTE ACT 2009.(3)
3. Objectives and Features of RTE Act2009.(2)
4. Provisions of RTE Act 2009(3)
5. Teaching learning and evaluation strategies in RTE (2)
6. Duties and responsibilities of school and teachers(2)
7. Role of stakeholder, parents, media (1)
Module no. 3 of optional paper Human Rights Education of S.Y.B.Ed. SNDT University.
Module - 2: Understanding ICT in Education (Credit 1, Hours 15, Marks 25)
Objectives: After learning this module the student teacher will be able to
- explain the meaning and characteristics of Computer.
- operate various hardware devices.
- explain the software and its uses in Education.
Course 3
Critical Understanding of ICT
SNDT Women’s University, Churchgate, Mumbai 20 . 19
Content:
1. Computer - Definition ,Characteristics & Types of Computer – Speed, Storage,
Accuracy, Versatile, Automation, Diligence (3)
2. Hardware and uses.-(6)
Input devices - Key Board, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone, Digital camera.
Output devices - Monitor, Printer, Speaker, Screen image projector
Storage devices - Hard Disk, CD & DVD, Mass Storage Device (Pen drive)
ICT Tools-Touch screen, Personal Digital Assistants (PDA),Bar Code Readers, LCD
Projectors, Game Pads and Joy Sticks.
3. Software‘s and its uses in Education. (6)
Operating System - Concept and function.
Application Software
• Word Processors
• Presentation software
• Data management -Spread sheet
• Content access software –Media Player,
• Media development software-Image Editing Software
Module 2 of Critical Understanding of ICT as per the F.Y.B.Ed. SNDT Syllabus.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
3. Behavioral Learning Theory
What is learning?
As per the behaviorists, learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in
behavior, brought about as a result of experience or practice.
It is a learning theory, based on the idea that behavior can be controlled and
modified based n the consequences of the behavior.
Learning hence is considered as an internal event.
5. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY-
Classical conditioning is a type of learning that had a
major influence on the school of thought in psychology
known as behaviorism.
Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov,
classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs
through associations between an environmental stimulus
and a naturally occurring stimulus.
oIvan Pavlov (26 September, 1849 – 27 February,
1939) was a Russian and Soviet experimental
neurologist, psychologist and physiologist known for his
discovery of classical conditioning through his
experiments with dogs.
oHe was awarded with Nobel Prize in 1904
6. Classical Conditioning-
It is a learning process, that occurs through association between an environmental stimulus and a
naturally occurring stimulus.
Basically involves forming an association between two stimuli and resulting in a learned response.
Pavlov associated the ringing of the bell with the presence of meat.
He rang bell every time the dogs were served food.
Pavlov started ringing bell and dogs started salivating.
Without being presented with meat.
This is learned reflex.
In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally
occurring reflex was salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus with the
environmental stimulus (the presentation of food), the sound of the tone alone could produce the
salivation response.
8. 4 Components of Classical Conditioning-
1. Unconditioned Stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically
triggers a response.
2. Unconditioned Response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in
response to the unconditioned stimulus.
3. Conditioned Stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming
associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger
a conditioned response.
4. Conditioned Response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.
9. Example-
Suhas was chased and assaulted by an aggressive dog when he was just barely three
years old. As an adult he still won’t go near or even be around a dog. He even gets a
little anxious when he hears the word dog.
Identify in the example above.
1. Unconditioned Stimulus
2. Unconditioned Response
3. Conditioned Stimulus
4. Conditioned Response
10. Principles of Classical Conditioning
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneou
s Recovery
Stimulus
Generalizat
ion
Discriminat
ion
1. ACQUISITION-
It is the initial stage of learning
Acquisition refers to the initial stage of
the learning or conditioning process. In
this stage, some response is being
associated with some stimulus to the
point where we can say the organism
(person, animal, etc.) has ‘acquired’ the
response.. For example, imagine that the
dog salivates at ringing of the bell.
11. Principles-
2. EXTINCTION
is when the occurrences of a conditioned
response decrease or disappear. In
classical conditioning, this happens when a
conditioned stimulus is no longer paired
with an unconditioned stimulus. For
example, if the smell of food (the
unconditioned stimulus) had been paired
with the sound of a whistle (the
conditioned stimulus), it would eventually
come to evoke the conditioned response of
hunger. However, if the unconditioned
stimulus (the smell of food) were no longer
paired with the conditioned stimulus (the
whistle), eventually the conditioned
response (hunger) would disappear.
3. SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
Spontaneous Recovery is the
reappearance of the conditioned
response after a rest period or period
of lessened response. If the conditioned
stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are
no longer associated, extinction will
occur very rapidly after a spontaneous
recovery.
12. Principles-
4. STIMULUS GENERALIZATION
Stimulus Generalization is the tendency
for the conditioned stimulus to evoke
similar responses after the response has
been conditioned. For example, if a child
has been conditioned to fear a stuffed
white rabbit, the child will exhibit fear
of objects similar to the conditioned
stimulus
5. DISCRIMINATION
Discrimination is the ability to
differentiate between a conditioned
stimulus and other stimuli that have not
been paired with an unconditioned
stimulus. For example, if a bell tone
were the conditioned stimulus,
discrimination would involve being able
to tell the difference between the bell
tone and other similar sounds.
13. Educational Implications of Classical Conditioning-
1. Many things of the school-subjects are learnt more adequately through this process. Reading
writing, spelling or habits are learnt more effectively through the process of conditioning.
2. Students can be conditioned in a positive manner.
3. Students can behave as per expectations of the society.
4. Teachers can use the theory to discipline the class. On first day, Teacher’s entry and after one
week, the students get accustomed to the teacher.
5. Addiction Treatment Theories.
6. Behavioural Interventions.
7. Good habits can be developed
8. Use of Theory to eradicate initial fear of school.
9. Thorndike’s Trial and Error Theory is based on this theory.
10. Classical conditioning set the groundwork for the present day behavior modification practices.
14. Operant Conditioning Theory-
Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as
instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that
uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior.
Through operant conditioning, behavior that is rewarded
is likely to be repeated, and behavior that is punished will
rarely occur.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18,
1990) was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author,
inventor, and social philosopher is the father of
Behaviorism.
According to Skinner, positive events increase the
probability of recurrence of behavior.
15. Skinner’s Experiment-
A Skinner box is an enclosed apparatus that contains a bar or
key that an animal subject can manipulate in order to obtain
reinforcement. Developed by B. F. Skinner and also known as
an operant conditioning chamber, this box also has a device
that records each response provided by the animal as well as
the unique schedule of reinforcement that the animal was
assigned. Common animal subjects include rats and pigeons.
When the lever is pressed, food, water, or some other type of
reinforcement might be dispensed. Other stimuli can also be
presented, including lights, sounds, and images.
The Skinner box is usually enclosed, to keep the animal from
experiencing other stimuli. Using the device, researchers can
carefully study behavior in a very controlled environment.
16.
17. ◦ Shaping: It provides guidance and direction for behaviour
change program & helps in assessing effectiveness. It assists in
setting goals for the behaviour of a certain student. Complex
behaviour is shaped and helps in learning difficult skills. For Eg.-
Pigeon to dance in a particular manner. Child learning foreign
language.
◦ Chaining: It is the process in shaping of behavior broken down
into small steps for effective learning of a given task by
providing subsequent reinforcement. It is a sort of chain
reaction. One object sparks the other object and so on.
◦ Discrimination & cueing: It is a process of using cues and
signals. Information to determine when behaviour is likely to be
reinforces or punished. cues or signals may reinforce behaviour
or may behaviour may punished. Example: Animal press the lever
when the light is on and not to press it when the light is off.
Light is a signal for the operant behavior
◦ Generalization: It is an ability of an organism dealing with the
perception. Response to similar stimuli. Example: child
successfully subtracts four apples from nine apples after
learning to subtract four oranges from nine oranges
Generalizat
ion
Discrimination
Chaining
Shaping
18. Educational Implications of Operant Conditioning-
1. Give expected direction to the behavior of pupil through reward and punishment.
2. Noxious behavior of the child can be removed.
3. Teacher need to use the reinforcers wisely and abundantly. Like praising the student for good
work and that too in proportion.
4. It helps for memorizing tables, chemical formulae, etc.
5. The school atmosphere should be burden free.
6. Teacher can remove fear and past perception of student.
7. Mainly inculcation of good social behavior and good habits. For e.g.. Table Manners,
Communication manners, etc.
8. For ex. Bonus is declared for hard work, employees get motivated, work hard and receive bonus
and incentive.
9. Machine learning in the form of teaching machines and computer assisted instructions have
been developed.
10. Verbal praise, positive facial expressions of the trainer or teacher , a feeling of success , high
scores , good grades , prizes , medals and opportunity to do work one likes are all good
motivators .
Educatio
nal
Implicat
ions
Behavior
Modificatio
n
Develops
human
personality
Helps in
developing
teaching
machines
Importance
of
Reinforcem
ent
Develops
behaviors
suitable to
avoid
punishment
19. Difference between Classical and Operant
Conditioning-
The main difference between classical and
operant conditioning is that classical
conditioning associates involuntary behavior
with a stimulus while operant conditioning
associates voluntary action with a consequence.
Classical Conditioning is one in which the
organism learns something through association,
i.e. Conditioned Stimuli and Unconditioned
Stimuli. Operant Conditioning is the type of
learning in which the organism learns by way of
modification in behaviour or pattern through
reinforcement or punishment.
21. Contribution of Behaviourism in Education-
1. Easily controlled by teacher.
2. Some learners benefit from repetition.
3. Reward and punishment are clear.
4. Ease of motivation.
5. Observable and measurable change in behavior.
6. Machine Learning based on behaviorism.
23. WHAT IS COGNITIVIST LEARNING-
Cognitivism is an internal process of learning, understanding, motivation and
retention.
The mind is broad and complex into which event-responses are absorbed.
The brain and mind are the center of an organism.
Cognitive theorists stress the importance of unobservable processes or
mental events that are involved in learning, such as thinking, memory,
perceptions, intentions and emotions.
how human beings organize, store and use information.
24. JEROME BRUNER
Born on 1st October, 1915 in New York
Ph.D. n Psychology from Harvard
Cognitive Psychologist and Educational Psychologist.
Major Contributions-
1) Scaffolding Theory
2) Spiral Curriculum
3) CAM
4) Stages of Cognitive Development
5) Constructivism
6) Concept of Intuitive and Analytical Thinking
7) Theory of Instruction
8) Cognitive Development Indicators
25. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT STAGES-
Like Piaget, Bruner also believed in
stages of Cognitive Development-
Enactive- Birth to 3 Yrs.
Iconic- Age 3yrs. To 8 yrs.
Symbolic- From age 8 yrs.
Onwards…
26. ENACTIVE STAGE-
The first stage, where an individual
learns about the world through
actions and the outcome of actions.
Learning begins with an action such
as touching, feeling, manipulating or
playing with toys, paper, utensils,
anything.
It involves encoding physical action-
based information and storing it in
our memory.
For example, in the form of
movement as muscle memory, a baby
might remember the action of
shaking a rattle.
27. ICONIC STAGE-
Here, learning can be obtained
through using models and pictures.
Also called as Pictorial stage.
his stage involves an internal
representation of external objects
visually in the form of a mental
image, icon, diagram, graph, table,
chart, etc.
For example, a child drawing an
image of a tree or thinking of an
image of a tree would be
representative of this stage.
28. SYMBOLIC STAGE-
The symbolic stage, from eight
years and up, is when information
is stored in the form of a code or
symbol such as language.
Each symbol has a fixed relation
to something it represents.
For example, the word 'dog' is a
symbolic representation for a
single class of animal.
29. SCAFFOLDING-
Scaffolding, also called scaffold or staging,
is a temporary structure used to support a
work crew and materials to aid in the
construction, maintenance and repair of
buildings, bridges and all other man-made
structures.
Here it means that, adults, particularly
parents, support child’s cognitive development
through everyday interactions.
It is however a temporary support, so children
are initially in influence of parents, as they
start thinking independently, they can
gradually become independent.
30. MORE ABOUT SCAFFOLDING-
Jerome Bruner and his associates described it as a “process that enables the
child or novice to solve a problem, carry out a task or achieve a goal which would
be beyond his unassisted efforts”.
Due to scaffolding, child gets following support-
Simplified tasks.
Simplified ideas.
Provides motivation to the child.
Highlights important task elements or errors.
Giving imitable role models.
31. SPIRAL CURRICULUM-
It is a curriculum design in which key
concepts are presented repeatedly
throughout the curriculum, but with
deepening layers of complexity, or in
different applications.
Key idea is that material presented to the
child must match developmental level.
It is based on the three principles of:
1. Cyclical Learning,
2. Increasing Depth on each Iteration,
and
3. Learning by building on prior knowledge
32. CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL-
The Concept Attainment Model
is based on the research efforts
of Jerome Bruner.
This model is designed to lead
students to a concept by asking
them to compare and contrast
examples that contain the
characteristics or attributes of
the concepts with examples that
do not contain these attributes
Teacher can always give
examples and non examples, so
as to develop child’s lateral
thinking.
Always give plenty of
examples.
Guessing game like technique.
Instead of being Information
supplier, teacher can be a
curiosity generator.
33. CONSTRUCTIVISM-
Constructivism is the theory that
says learners construct knowledge
rather than just passively take in
information.
As people experience the world
and reflect upon those
experiences, they build their own
representations and incorporate
new information into their pre-
existing knowledge.
A constructivist classroom emphasizes -
active learning,
collaboration,
viewing a concept or problem from multiple
perspectives,
reflection,
student-centeredness,
authentic assessment to promote meaningful
learning and
help students construct their own
understanding of the world.
34. CONCEPT OF INTUITIVE AND ANALYTICAL
THINKING-
Intuitive thinking means going with
one's first instinct and reaching
decisions quickly based on
automatic cognitive processes.
Intuitive thought is automatic,
unconscious, and fast, and it is
more experiential and emotional.
Analytical Thinking is being able
to identify and define problems,
extract key information from data
and develop workable solutions for
the problems identified in order to
test and verify the cause of the
problem and develop solutions to
resolve the problems identified.
Analytic thought is deliberate,
conscious, and rational (logical).
35. INDICATORS OF
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT-
1) Respond to situations in varied ways.
2) Internalize the events into a storage
system (that corresponds to the
environment).
3) Have increased capacity for language.
4) Interact systematically with the tutor.
5) Use language as an instrument for
ordering the environment.
6) Have increasing capacity to deal with
multiple demands.
36. THEORY OF INSTRUCTION-
Bruner (1996) states that a theory of instruction should address four major
aspects
1. Predisposition to learn- He introduced the ideas of “readiness for
learning”. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and context
that make the student willing and able to learn.
2. Structure of Learning-Instruction must be structured so that it can be
easily grasped by the students. The ways in which a body of knowledge can
be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the leaner.
3. Effective Sequencing- Instruction should be designed to facilitate
extrapolation and or fill in the gaps. No one sequencing will fit every learner,
but in general, the lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty.
4. Reinforcement- Rewards and punishment should be selected and paced
appropriately.
37. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS-
As per Bruner, learning is an active process in which learners construct new
ideas.
Instruction must be of Scaffolding type.
Curriculum must be spiral.
He found out that motivation for learning needs to be intrinsic. External
competitive goas like grades, marks and ranks are time being motivators.
As per Bruner, intuition is underrated.
Schema is important at it makes learning meaningful; and long lasting. Schema
are the mental structures build on the basis of previous knowledge.
Bruner recommended use of combination of concrete, pictorial and then
symbolic activities in sequence.
39. DAVID PAUL AUSUBEL
25/10/1918 to 09/07/2008
He was an American Psychologist born in New York.
His most significant contribution Educations Advance Organizers.
He supported the theory that pupils form and organize knowledge by
themselves.
Emphasized importance of language learning and verbal leaning.
Ensure meaningful learning.
Avoid rote learning.
In the meaningful learning process, correlation is established between
previous knowledge and current knowledge.
41. THE PROCESSES OF MEANINGFUL
LEARNING-
Ausubel proposed 4 processes by which meaningful learning occur-
◊Derivative Subsumption
◊Correlative Subsumption
◊Superordinate Learning
◊Combinatorial Learning
42. DERIVATIVE SUBSUMPTION-
Derivative Subsumption is when you
add new things to existing cognitive
structures, linking them to concepts
already known.
A learner absorbs new information by
tying it to existing concepts and ideas
that they have already acquired.
In Derivative Subsumption, the new
material derives from the existing
structure, and can be linked to other
concepts or lead to new
interpretations. For Example- if we take a concept of bird, student is aware
about basic features…and when we say parrot is a bird,
student learns about the basic idea, already clear in their
mind.
43. CORRELATIVE SUBSUMPTION-
Correlative subsumption refers
to the elaboration, extension, or
modification of the previously
learned concept or propositions
by the subsumptions of the
incoming idea
In Correlative Subsumption, the
new material is an extension of
the already grasped knowledge.
Accommodation of new
information by changing or
expanding the concept.
Students are aware about the concept of leaves. But When
they are shown thorns as modified leaves, their
understanding of existing concept broadens.
44. SUPERORDINATE LEARNING-
This type of learning takes place when a
learner learns an inclusive new concept
under which ideas in the cognitive
structure are absorbed.
That is learner knew a lot of examples of
the concept, but you did not know the
concept until it was taught to pupils.
new concept is learned under which
already established ideas are subsumed.
Often people learn lessons from their
experiences.
Imagine that I was well acquainted with
maples, oaks, apple trees, etc., but I did
not know, until I was taught, that these
were all examples of deciduous trees.
Principles of Growth and Development, you
already knew, but, ideas got organized, after
learning as a subject in B.Ed.
45. COMBINATORIAL LEARNING-
Combinatorial learning happens when a
new idea is not relatable in a specific
sense to an existing anchor but is
generally relevant to a broad
background of information.
Combinatorial learning is when ideas
are linked (combined) between higher-
level concepts such as when one knows
form physics, for example, that
stationary air-spaces insulate helps to
better understand the function of
hair or feathers in keeping certain
animals warm. For Example- Correlation of various subjects,
makes a better understanding of every related
subject.
46. THE PRINCIPLES OF THE MEANINGFUL
LEARNING -
1. Active: The learner must cognitively engage with the presented information
using an appropriate learning styles.
2. Constructive: When information is incorporated into a cognitive structure, it
is recreated as a new form showing the learners own understanding.
3. Cumulative: New information builds upon old information rather than being
replaced or stored independently.
4. Self-regulated: Meaningful learning is an independent process. The learner
must conduct and regulate their own learning process as well as make
decisions on how to organize the mental model.
5. Goal-Oriented: An outcome or expectation should be worked by the learner.
Moreover, the goal must be devised individually.
47. SUMMARY-
Old New
Meaningful
Learning
Within the cognitive theory of
learning, based on the theory of
human information processing, there
are 3 core processes of learning:
1. how knowledge is developed,
2. how new knowledge is integrated
into an existing cognitive system,
and
3. how knowledge becomes
automatic.
48. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS-
1. The teachers should take into account what was obtained by students previously
and try to relate it to the new knowledge.
2. Teachers should use phases, materials, contents, and ideas that connect with
prior knowledge while establishing new knowledge.
3. Students should be able to relate what’s being taught with their previous
knowledge.
4. Use interesting techniques and methods of teaching.
5. The learning material presented to the learners should be clear and organized
for them to understand.
6. Use real-life examples.
7. For meaningful learning, teachers should focus on developing motivation in the
students.
49. Jerome Bruner David Ausubel
Jerome Bruner Cognitive
Psychologist proposed following-
Scaffolding Theory
Spiral Curriculum
CAM
Stages of Cognitive Development
Constructivism
Concept of Intuitive and
Analytical Thinking
Ausubel proposed 4 processes by
which meaningful learning occur-
◊Derivative Subsumption
◊Correlative Subsumption
◊Superordinate Learning
◊Combinatorial Learning
52. What is Memory?
Memory is the record of experiences.
It is the storehouse of mind, the
reservoir of the accumulated learning.
It is a complex physical and mental
process.
It can be defined as the storage of the
learned information for retrieval and
future use.
53. Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin
Richard Shiffrin (born
March 13, 1942) is an
American psychologist,
professor of cognitive
science in the Department
of Psychological and Brain
Sciences at Indiana
University, Bloomington.
Shiffrin has contributed a
number of theories of
attention and memory to the
field of psychology.
Richard Chatham
Atkinson (born
March 19, 1929) is
an American
professor of
psychology and
cognitive science
and an academic
administrator.
54. Theory at a glance-
In 1968 these two proposed a
multi-stage theory of memory.
They explained that from the
time information is received by
the processing system, it goes
through different stages to be
fully stored.
They broke this down to sensory
memory, short-term memory, and
long-term memory (Atkinson).
55. Information Processing-
The processing of information, typically by a computer or by
an organism, so as to yield new or more useful information.
The human mind’s activity of taking-in, storing and using the
information as and when required.
The whole system is guided by control processes.
Just like the computer, human mind takes in information, performs
operations on to it to change its form and content, stores the
information, retrieves it when needed and generates responses to it.
56. Defn. of Information Processing-
The model of learning that examines how we learn using the
Mind As A Computer metaphor.
The Information Processing Model represents what
happens when information flows through various internal
structures which are supposed to exist inside the learner.
57. Three Step Process of Memorizing-
1. Encoding- The processing of information into the memory system.
2. Storage- The retention of encoded material over time.
3. Retrieval- The process of getting the information out of memory
storage for some application.
59. 3 Types of Memory-
Sensory Memory
Short-Term
Memory(STM) or
Working Memory
Long-Term
Memory(LTM)
60. Sensory Memory
Stimuli from the environment
(sight, sound, smell, etc.)
constantly bombard our body’s
mechanism for seeing, hearing,
tasting, smelling and feeling.
Sensory memory is the initial
processing that transforms these
incoming stimuli into information
so we can make sense of them.
61. Short-Term Memory(STM) or Working Memory
Short-Term Memory(STM) or Working Memory refers only to the temporary stage
of information in memory.
It just usually means storage, the immediate memory for new information that can
be held for 15-20 seconds.
To retain information in working memory following steps top be followed-
1. Chunking
2. Mnemonic Devices
3. Rehearsal
62. Forgetting-
Meaning-
Forgetting or disremembering is the apparent loss or modification
of information already encoded and stored in an individual's short or
long-term memory.
It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are
unable to be recalled from memory storage.
63. Factors responsible for Forgetting-
1. Encoding Failure- We don’t learn the information in the first place.
2. Decay- Memories fade over time.
3. Inadequate Retrieval Cues- We lack reminders/links.
4. Deliberate Forgetting- We deliberately keep things out of our mind.
5. Interference- Other memories get in the way.
Interference
Retroactive
Interference
Proactive
Interference
Retroactive Interference - New information blocks out
old information.
Proactive Interference - Old information blocks out new
information.
64. Long-Term Memory(LTM)
Long-term memory refers to the
memory process in the brain that takes
information from the short-term
memory store and creates long lasting
memories. These memories can be from
an hour ago or several decades ago.
Unlimited storehouse of information
Permanent store of information.
65. Long-term memory is not a single store and is divided into 2 types-
explicit (conscious) and implicit (casual or unconscious).
Long-term
memory
Explicit
Memory
Episodic Semantic
Implicit
Memory
Procedural Emotional
66. Explicit and Implicit memory are both types of long-term memory. The information we memorize consciously is known as
explicit memory while the information we store or remember unconsciously is called implicit memory.
Episodic Memory - Episodic memory is responsible for storing information about events (i.e. episodes) that we have
experienced in our lives. It involves conscious thought and is declarative. An example would be a memory of our 1st day at
school. The knowledge that we hold in episodic memory focuses on “knowing that” something is the case (i.e.
declarative). For example, we might have an episodic memory of knowing that we caught the bus to college today.
Semantic Memory - Semantic memory is responsible for storing information about the world. This includes knowledge
about the meaning of words, as well as general knowledge. For example, London is the capital of England. It involves
conscious thought and is declarative. The knowledge that we hold in semantic memory focuses on “knowing that”
something is the case (i.e. declarative). For example, we might have a semantic memory for knowing that Paris is the
capital of France.
Procedural Memory - Procedural memory is responsible for knowing how to do things, i.e., memory of motor skills. It
does not involve conscious (i.e., it’s unconscious-automatic) thought and is not declarative. For example, procedural
memory would involve knowledge of how to ride a bicycle.
Emotional Memory-Emotional memory is shorthand for denoting the memory of experiences that evoked an emotional
reaction.
Types of LTM-
67. Educational Implications of Multi Store Model of
Memory by Atkinson and Shiffrin-
1. Plan for higher Attention Span.
2. Use attention signals.
3. Keep student’s attention engaged.
4. Respect attention limit.
5. Follow Chunking, Mnemonic Devices and Rehearsal techniques.
6. Help students for effective storage and retrieval.
7. Implicit and Explicit Memory.
8. Take efforts to minimize student’s forgetting.
68. Criticism of Atkinson Shiffrin View of Learning-
The model is oversimplified, in particular when it suggests that both short-term
and long-term memory each operate in a single, uniform fashion. We now know is
this not the case. It has now become apparent that both short-term and long-term
memory are more complicated that previously thought.
It assumes that each of the stores works as an independent unit.
The model does not explain memory distortion.
The model does not explain why some things may be learned with a minimal amount
of rehearsal.
70. Humanistic Approach to Learning - Carl
Rogers
Slide Presentation by-Prof.Samruddhi Chepe
71. Psychodynamic My unconscious profoundly shapes my world and life.
I am motivated by instincts and drives such as aggression and sexuality
while also those drives with societal expectations.
Behaviorist I learn by association.
Repetitive experiences shape my responses.
Humanist I have choice.
I'm motivated by Self Actualization Tendency to explore my full
potential.
72. Born in 1902, Carl grew up on a farm in Illinois, developing an interest in biology agriculture.
Expressing emotions was not allowed in the Rogers household it took its toll on Carl who
developed an ulcer at 15.
Rogers went to the University of Wisconsin to study agriculture in 1919.
He changed careers becoming interested in religious studies. He finished his degree and left for
Union Theological Seminary in NY to become a minister.
Rogers view of humanistic psychology was at odds with Freudian theory behaviorism.
He gained recognition when he won the APA award for distinguished scientific contribution in
1956.
In 1963, he moved to LaJolla, California.Developed the Centre for Studies of the Person.
He continued his scientific efforts, writing, holding workshops,etc. until he died in 1987.
73. 1. Phenomenal Field
2. Organism and the actualizing tendency
3. Ideal Self
4. Congruence and Incongruence
5. Personality Development
6. Fully Functioning Person
74. the phenomenal self represents that
subset of self-knowledge—including
beliefs, values, attitudes, self-ascribed
traits, feelings of self-worth,
autobiographical memories,
interpersonal relationship knowledge,
and goals and plans—that is currently
in consciousness.
For example, a person who is made
self-aware by being placed before a
mirror is more likely to behave in ways
that are consistent with his or her traits
than if he or she were not self-aware.
75. What Is Actualizing Tendency?
The basic idea of the
actualizing tendency is
straightforward. It is a desire
present in all living things
that pushes the organism
toward growth. In the case of
humans, we all want to express
ourselves creatively and reach
our full potential.
76. Self-concept How I see myself
The ideal self is the person that you
would like to be; the real self is the
person you actually are.
77. Although general use of the word
has come to mean inconsistent or
incompatible, Rogers had a more
specific definition in mind.
He defined congruence as the
matching of experience and
awareness.
Incongruence was therefore
lacking congruence, or having
feelings not aligned with your
actions.
78. Personality
development encompasses the
dynamic construction and
deconstruction of integrative
characteristics that
distinguish an individual in
terms of interpersonal
behavioral traits. Personality
development is ever-changing
and subject to contextual factors
and life-altering experiences.
79. A fully functioning person is one who is
continually working toward becoming
self-actualized.
They are also capable of expressing
feelings and are fully open to life's many
experiences.
Awareness of all experiences
Live fully in the moment
Trust own behavior and experience
Sense of freedom in decision making
Creative, flexible to change
Recognition that difficulties will inevitably
arise.
80. Research in psychotherapy.
First to refer to the person as Client instead of patient.
Growth model was given.
Emphasis on developing self-concept in personality.
Conditions necessary for therapy accepted and used in many other schools of
therapy.
Developed the Person Centered Therapy.
Concept of Congruence.
Represents a shift from medical model to growth model.
82. In education roger stressed at the
rich environment, where learners
could follow their interests to reach
their full potentials.
Curriculum must be learner
centered.
Knowledge should be applicable.
Emphasize learner development.
Teaching should be intrinsic.
Facilitation of learning should be the
primary purpose of education.
83. Ignores aspects of personality that client may be unaware of, but that still influence
clients behaviour.
Ambiguous concepts Self-actualizing tendency
Rogers assumes that core of humans is positivity. But victims of violent crimes may
disagree.
Rogers also believed humans are Trustworthy Organisms.
Actualization is it always achieved??
84.
85. SOCIAL-CONSTRUCTIVISTTHEORY OF LEARNING-
(VIEWS OF PIAGETAND LEVVYGOTSKY)
Social constructivism focuses on the collaborative nature of learning. Knowledge develops from how people interact with each
other, their culture, and society at large.
Students rely on others to help create their building blocks, and learning from others helps them construct their own knowledge
and reality.
Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating a classroom environment that emphasizes
collaboration and exchange of ideas.
Students must learn how to articulate their ideas clearly as well as to collaborate on tasks effectively by sharing in group
projects.
Jean Piaget is known as one of the first theorists in constructivism. His theories indicate that humans create knowledge
through the interaction between their experiences and ideas.
Social constructivism was developed by post-revolutionary Soviet psychologist LevVygotsky.
86. LEVVYGOTSKY-
Vygotsky was born in Russia on November 17, 1896 and died on June 11, 1934
at the age of 37.
His work began when he was studying learning and development to improve
his own teaching.
He attended Moscow State University, where he graduated with a degree in
law in 1917.
He is considered as the father of social constructivist theory. He followed the
work of Jean Piaget – who is attributed as the roots of constructivism.
While Piaget focused on stages of child development and individual
construction of knowledge, Vygotsky identified the greater socio-cultural
context.
He wrote on language, thought, psychology of art, learning and development
and educating students with special needs.
88. SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-
Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens
through participation in social activities.
Parents , teachers and other adults in the learner’s
environment all contribute to the process.They
explain, model, assist, give directions and provide feed
back.
Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and collaborate
and enrich the learning experience.
Basic Principles of Social Constructivism
Children construct their knowledge.
Development cannot be separated from its social
context.
Learning can lead to development.
Language plays a central role in mental development.
89. This child is learning to walk with the help of a parent.
The parent holds both hands so the child doesn’t have
to focus on both balance and moving her feet. Soon, this
child will be able to walk and run by herself.
What are you writing? Father’s knowledge of letters:
Structure, Purpose, Conventional spelling and grammar
I’m writing a letter Child’s knowledge of letters: Mom
and dad write and receive letters.
Language can be viewed as a verbal expression of
culture.
Every culture has the words it needs for its lifestyle.
It opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge
that others already have.
It is use to know and understand the world and solve
problems.
It serves a social function but it also has an important
individual function.It helps the learner to regulate and
reflect on his own thinking.
91. SOCIAL INTERACTION-
Vygotsky felt social learning anticipates development.
He believes that young children are curious and
actively involved in their own learning and the
discovery and development of new understandings.
92. MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER-
Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may
be the individuals with more knowledge or
experience. For example: Who would know more
about the latest teen music group, how to be the
newest black ops game, or what is the latest dance
moves, a child or their parent?
93. ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)
This is an important concept that relates to the
difference between what a child can achieve
independently and what a child can achieve with
guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.
According toVygotsky learning occurs here.
Vygotsky sees the ZPD as the area where the most
sensitive instruction or guidance should be given,
allowing the child to develop skills they will then use
on their own, developing higher mental functions.
94. ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
Vygotsky is most recognized for his concept of Zone of
Proximal Development or ZPD pertaining to the learning of
children.
However, with an appropriate amount of assistance, these
children can accomplish the task successfully.
The lower limit of a child’s zone of proximal development is the
level of analysis and problem-solving reached by a child without
any help.
The upper limit, on the other hand, is the level of additional
responsibility that a child can receive with the support of a
skilled instructor.
As children are verbally given instructions or shown how to
perform certain tasks, they organize the new information
received in their existing mental schemas in order to assist
them in the ultimate goal of performing the task independently.
95. COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM-
Peer interaction, scaffolding and modeling are important way to
facilitate individual cognitive growth and knowledge acquisition.
Peer Interaction-The shared social interactions when peers work on tasks
cooperatively serve an instructional function.
Scaffolding - Psychologist and instructional designer Jerome Bruner first used the
term 'scaffolding' in this context back in the 1950s.The term scaffolding refers to
a process in which teachers model or demonstrate how to solve a problem, and
then step back, offering support as needed (supports may be recourses,
compelling a task, templates and guides etc.).
Modelling or Reciprocal teaching- It involves interactive dialogues between
teacher and small group of students.At first, the teacher models the activities.
After that teacher and students take turns being the teacher. Eg.- reading
comprehension.
Peer
Interaction
Scaffolding
Modeling
96. EDUCATIONALAPPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISTS
THEORY-
Child is an active participant in the learning process.
Individual differences are considered.
Teachers assist children in discovery.
Each Child’s proximal zone of development to be considered.
Promote fantasy play.
Interactive Class-Child to Child and Child to Teacher.
Give demonstrations, give freedom to certain extent, give responsibility, cooperative learning etc. to be done.
97. JEAN PIAGET-
Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious
student, publishing his first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old.
His early exposure to the intellectual development of children came
when he worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon as
they worked to standardize their famous IQ test.
Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was
inspired by his observations of his own nephew and daughter.
Children were earlier treated simply as smaller versions of adults. Piaget
was one of the first to identify that the way that children think is
different from the way adults think.
98. 3 MAIN CONCEPTS IN PIAGET’STHEORY-
Schema
Assimilation and
Accommodation
Stages of
Learning
99. SCHEMA-
Mental Structures that an individual uses
to organize knowledge.
A schema, or scheme, is an abstract concept
proposed by J. Piaget to refer to our, well,
abstract concepts. Schemas (or schemata)
are units of understanding that can be
hierarchically categorized as well as webbed
into complex relationships with one another.
For example, think of a house.
100. ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMMODATION-
According to Piaget, the learning process involves the
following:-
Assimilation: Attempting to interpret new
information within the framework of existing
knowledge.
Accommodation: Making small changes to that
knowledge in order to cope with things that don't fit
those existing frameworks.
101. JEAN PIAGET'S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT-
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development works on understanding how children
acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages
are:
Sensori-motor stage: birth to 2 years
Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
17
103. THE SENSORI-MOTOR STAGE
AGES: BIRTHTO 2YEARS
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence)
They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them
Key Feature- Object Permanence
19
105. THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
AGES: 2TO 7YEARS
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete
terms.
Key Feature- Egocentrism
21
107. THE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
AGES: 7TO 11YEARS
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to
that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle.
Key Feature- Conservation
23
109. THE FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
AGES: 12 AND UP
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
Abstract thought emerges
Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical
and abstract reasoning
Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information
Key Feature- Manipulate ideas in head, abstract reasoning.
25
110.
111. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
1. Emphasis on discovery approach in learning.
2. Curriculum should provide specific educational experience based on children's developmental level.
3. Arrange classroom activities so that they assist and encourage self-learning.
4. Do not treat children as miniature adults; they think and learn differently from adults.
5. Practical learning situations.
6. Simple to Complex and Project method of teaching.
7. Co-curricular activities have equal importance as that of curricular experiences in the cognitive
development of children.
27
114. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PIAGET ANDVYGOTSKY’SVIEWS-
Parameters- Piaget Vygotsky
Socioculturalcontext little emphasis Strong emphasis
Constructivism Cognitive constructivist Social constructivist
Stages Strong emphasis on stages of development No general stages of development
proposed
Key processes in
development& learning
Equilibration; schema;adaptation;
assimilation; accommodation
Zone of proximal development;scaffolding;
language/dialogue;tools of the culture
Role of language Minimal - Language provides labels for
children's experiences (egocentric speech)
Major- Language plays a powerful role in
shaping thought
T
eaching implications Support children to explore their world
and discover knowledge
Establish opportunities for children to learn
with the teacher and more skilled peers
115. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISTTHEORY-
Child as an active participant in the learning process.
Importance of individual difference.
Assist children in discovery.
Teachers should guide learning through explanation, demonstration and verbal prompts. Tailor lessons to each
Childs zone of proximal development.
Early childhood – promote teacher/child and child/child interactions.
Promote fantasy play.
Within the learning environment focus on literacy activities.
Use prompts, reminders, increase independence,give information, use cooperative learning and reciprocal teaching
strategies.
Language is the most important tool for gaining this social knowledge. Children can learn a lot via language