The document discusses various learning theories, primarily focusing on behaviorism, which includes classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning, developed by Ivan Pavlov, emphasizes learning through associative stimuli, while operant conditioning, introduced by B.F. Skinner, centers on behavior modification through rewards and punishments. It further explores cognitivism, particularly through the work of Jerome Bruner and David Ausubel, highlighting concepts like scaffolding, the spiral curriculum, and meaningful learning processes.

1. Behaviorist View of Learning
CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY

2. Views on
Human
Learning
Behaviorism
by Ivan
Pavlov
Cognitivism
by Ausubel &
Bruner
Information
Processing
by Atkinson
& Shiffrin
Humanist by
Carl Rogers
Social
Constructivis
t by
Vygotsky and
Piaget

3. Behavioral Learning Theory
What is learning?
As per the behaviorists, learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in
behavior, brought about as a result of experience or practice.
It is a learning theory, based on the idea that behavior can be controlled and
modified based n the consequences of the behavior.
Learning hence is considered as an internal event.

4. 2 Types-
Behaviourism
Classical
Conditioning by
Ivan Pavlov
Operant
Conditioning by
B.F. Skinner

5. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY-
Classical conditioning is a type of learning that had a
major influence on the school of thought in psychology
known as behaviorism.
Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov,
classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs
through associations between an environmental stimulus
and a naturally occurring stimulus.
oIvan Pavlov (26 September, 1849 – 27 February,
1939) was a Russian and Soviet experimental
neurologist, psychologist and physiologist known for his
discovery of classical conditioning through his
experiments with dogs.
oHe was awarded with Nobel Prize in 1904

6. Classical Conditioning-
It is a learning process, that occurs through association between an environmental stimulus and a
naturally occurring stimulus.
Basically involves forming an association between two stimuli and resulting in a learned response.
Pavlov associated the ringing of the bell with the presence of meat.
He rang bell every time the dogs were served food.
Pavlov started ringing bell and dogs started salivating.
Without being presented with meat.
This is learned reflex.
In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally
occurring reflex was salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus with the
environmental stimulus (the presentation of food), the sound of the tone alone could produce the
salivation response.

7. Pavlov’s Experiment-

8. 4 Components of Classical Conditioning-
1. Unconditioned Stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically
triggers a response.
2. Unconditioned Response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in
response to the unconditioned stimulus.
3. Conditioned Stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming
associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger
a conditioned response.
4. Conditioned Response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.

9. Example-
Suhas was chased and assaulted by an aggressive dog when he was just barely three
years old. As an adult he still won’t go near or even be around a dog. He even gets a
little anxious when he hears the word dog.
Identify in the example above.
1. Unconditioned Stimulus
2. Unconditioned Response
3. Conditioned Stimulus
4. Conditioned Response

10. Principles of Classical Conditioning
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneou
s Recovery
Stimulus
Generalizat
ion
Discriminat
ion
1. ACQUISITION-
It is the initial stage of learning
Acquisition refers to the initial stage of
the learning or conditioning process. In
this stage, some response is being
associated with some stimulus to the
point where we can say the organism
(person, animal, etc.) has ‘acquired’ the
response.. For example, imagine that the
dog salivates at ringing of the bell.

11. Principles-
2. EXTINCTION
is when the occurrences of a conditioned
response decrease or disappear. In
classical conditioning, this happens when a
conditioned stimulus is no longer paired
with an unconditioned stimulus. For
example, if the smell of food (the
unconditioned stimulus) had been paired
with the sound of a whistle (the
conditioned stimulus), it would eventually
come to evoke the conditioned response of
hunger. However, if the unconditioned
stimulus (the smell of food) were no longer
paired with the conditioned stimulus (the
whistle), eventually the conditioned
response (hunger) would disappear.
3. SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
Spontaneous Recovery is the
reappearance of the conditioned
response after a rest period or period
of lessened response. If the conditioned
stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are
no longer associated, extinction will
occur very rapidly after a spontaneous
recovery.

12. Principles-
4. STIMULUS GENERALIZATION
Stimulus Generalization is the tendency
for the conditioned stimulus to evoke
similar responses after the response has
been conditioned. For example, if a child
has been conditioned to fear a stuffed
white rabbit, the child will exhibit fear
of objects similar to the conditioned
stimulus
5. DISCRIMINATION
Discrimination is the ability to
differentiate between a conditioned
stimulus and other stimuli that have not
been paired with an unconditioned
stimulus. For example, if a bell tone
were the conditioned stimulus,
discrimination would involve being able
to tell the difference between the bell
tone and other similar sounds.

13. Educational Implications of Classical Conditioning-
1. Many things of the school-subjects are learnt more adequately through this process. Reading
writing, spelling or habits are learnt more effectively through the process of conditioning.
2. Students can be conditioned in a positive manner.
3. Students can behave as per expectations of the society.
4. Teachers can use the theory to discipline the class. On first day, Teacher’s entry and after one
week, the students get accustomed to the teacher.
5. Addiction Treatment Theories.
6. Behavioural Interventions.
7. Good habits can be developed
8. Use of Theory to eradicate initial fear of school.
9. Thorndike’s Trial and Error Theory is based on this theory.
10. Classical conditioning set the groundwork for the present day behavior modification practices.

14. Operant Conditioning Theory-
Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as
instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that
uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior.
Through operant conditioning, behavior that is rewarded
is likely to be repeated, and behavior that is punished will
rarely occur.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18,
1990) was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author,
inventor, and social philosopher is the father of
Behaviorism.
According to Skinner, positive events increase the
probability of recurrence of behavior.

15. Skinner’s Experiment-
A Skinner box is an enclosed apparatus that contains a bar or
key that an animal subject can manipulate in order to obtain
reinforcement. Developed by B. F. Skinner and also known as
an operant conditioning chamber, this box also has a device
that records each response provided by the animal as well as
the unique schedule of reinforcement that the animal was
assigned. Common animal subjects include rats and pigeons.
When the lever is pressed, food, water, or some other type of
reinforcement might be dispensed. Other stimuli can also be
presented, including lights, sounds, and images.
The Skinner box is usually enclosed, to keep the animal from
experiencing other stimuli. Using the device, researchers can
carefully study behavior in a very controlled environment.

17. ◦ Shaping: It provides guidance and direction for behaviour
change program & helps in assessing effectiveness. It assists in
setting goals for the behaviour of a certain student. Complex
behaviour is shaped and helps in learning difficult skills. For Eg.-
Pigeon to dance in a particular manner. Child learning foreign
language.
◦ Chaining: It is the process in shaping of behavior broken down
into small steps for effective learning of a given task by
providing subsequent reinforcement. It is a sort of chain
reaction. One object sparks the other object and so on.
◦ Discrimination & cueing: It is a process of using cues and
signals. Information to determine when behaviour is likely to be
reinforces or punished. cues or signals may reinforce behaviour
or may behaviour may punished. Example: Animal press the lever
when the light is on and not to press it when the light is off.
Light is a signal for the operant behavior
◦ Generalization: It is an ability of an organism dealing with the
perception. Response to similar stimuli. Example: child
successfully subtracts four apples from nine apples after
learning to subtract four oranges from nine oranges
Generalizat
ion
Discrimination
Chaining
Shaping

18. Educational Implications of Operant Conditioning-
1. Give expected direction to the behavior of pupil through reward and punishment.
2. Noxious behavior of the child can be removed.
3. Teacher need to use the reinforcers wisely and abundantly. Like praising the student for good
work and that too in proportion.
4. It helps for memorizing tables, chemical formulae, etc.
5. The school atmosphere should be burden free.
6. Teacher can remove fear and past perception of student.
7. Mainly inculcation of good social behavior and good habits. For e.g.. Table Manners,
Communication manners, etc.
8. For ex. Bonus is declared for hard work, employees get motivated, work hard and receive bonus
and incentive.
9. Machine learning in the form of teaching machines and computer assisted instructions have
been developed.
10. Verbal praise, positive facial expressions of the trainer or teacher , a feeling of success , high
scores , good grades , prizes , medals and opportunity to do work one likes are all good
motivators .
Educatio
nal
Implicat
ions
Behavior
Modificatio
n
Develops
human
personality
Helps in
developing
teaching
machines
Importance
of
Reinforcem
ent
Develops
behaviors
suitable to
avoid
punishment

19. Difference between Classical and Operant
Conditioning-
The main difference between classical and
operant conditioning is that classical
conditioning associates involuntary behavior
with a stimulus while operant conditioning
associates voluntary action with a consequence.
Classical Conditioning is one in which the
organism learns something through association,
i.e. Conditioned Stimuli and Unconditioned
Stimuli. Operant Conditioning is the type of
learning in which the organism learns by way of
modification in behaviour or pattern through
reinforcement or punishment.

20. Comparative Study-

21. Contribution of Behaviourism in Education-
1. Easily controlled by teacher.
2. Some learners benefit from repetition.
3. Reward and punishment are clear.
4. Ease of motivation.
5. Observable and measurable change in behavior.
6. Machine Learning based on behaviorism.

22. COGNITIVIST VIEW OF
LEARNING
(Views of Bruner
and Ausubel)

23. WHAT IS COGNITIVIST LEARNING-
Cognitivism is an internal process of learning, understanding, motivation and
retention.
The mind is broad and complex into which event-responses are absorbed.
The brain and mind are the center of an organism.
Cognitive theorists stress the importance of unobservable processes or
mental events that are involved in learning, such as thinking, memory,
perceptions, intentions and emotions.
how human beings organize, store and use information.

24. JEROME BRUNER
Born on 1st October, 1915 in New York
Ph.D. n Psychology from Harvard
Cognitive Psychologist and Educational Psychologist.
Major Contributions-
1) Scaffolding Theory
2) Spiral Curriculum
3) CAM
4) Stages of Cognitive Development
5) Constructivism
6) Concept of Intuitive and Analytical Thinking
7) Theory of Instruction
8) Cognitive Development Indicators

25. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT STAGES-
Like Piaget, Bruner also believed in
stages of Cognitive Development-
Enactive- Birth to 3 Yrs.
Iconic- Age 3yrs. To 8 yrs.
Symbolic- From age 8 yrs.
Onwards…

26. ENACTIVE STAGE-
The first stage, where an individual
learns about the world through
actions and the outcome of actions.
Learning begins with an action such
as touching, feeling, manipulating or
playing with toys, paper, utensils,
anything.
It involves encoding physical action-
based information and storing it in
our memory.
For example, in the form of
movement as muscle memory, a baby
might remember the action of
shaking a rattle.

27. ICONIC STAGE-
Here, learning can be obtained
through using models and pictures.
Also called as Pictorial stage.
his stage involves an internal
representation of external objects
visually in the form of a mental
image, icon, diagram, graph, table,
chart, etc.
For example, a child drawing an
image of a tree or thinking of an
image of a tree would be
representative of this stage.

28. SYMBOLIC STAGE-
The symbolic stage, from eight
years and up, is when information
is stored in the form of a code or
symbol such as language.
Each symbol has a fixed relation
to something it represents.
For example, the word 'dog' is a
symbolic representation for a
single class of animal.

29. SCAFFOLDING-
Scaffolding, also called scaffold or staging,
is a temporary structure used to support a
work crew and materials to aid in the
construction, maintenance and repair of
buildings, bridges and all other man-made
structures.
Here it means that, adults, particularly
parents, support child’s cognitive development
through everyday interactions.
It is however a temporary support, so children
are initially in influence of parents, as they
start thinking independently, they can
gradually become independent.

30. MORE ABOUT SCAFFOLDING-
Jerome Bruner and his associates described it as a “process that enables the
child or novice to solve a problem, carry out a task or achieve a goal which would
be beyond his unassisted efforts”.
Due to scaffolding, child gets following support-
Simplified tasks.
Simplified ideas.
Provides motivation to the child.
Highlights important task elements or errors.
Giving imitable role models.

31. SPIRAL CURRICULUM-
It is a curriculum design in which key
concepts are presented repeatedly
throughout the curriculum, but with
deepening layers of complexity, or in
different applications.
Key idea is that material presented to the
child must match developmental level.
It is based on the three principles of:
1. Cyclical Learning,
2. Increasing Depth on each Iteration,
and
3. Learning by building on prior knowledge

32. CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL-
The Concept Attainment Model
is based on the research efforts
of Jerome Bruner.
This model is designed to lead
students to a concept by asking
them to compare and contrast
examples that contain the
characteristics or attributes of
the concepts with examples that
do not contain these attributes
Teacher can always give
examples and non examples, so
as to develop child’s lateral
thinking.
Always give plenty of
examples.
Guessing game like technique.
Instead of being Information
supplier, teacher can be a
curiosity generator.

33. CONSTRUCTIVISM-
Constructivism is the theory that
says learners construct knowledge
rather than just passively take in
information.
As people experience the world
and reflect upon those
experiences, they build their own
representations and incorporate
new information into their pre-
existing knowledge.
A constructivist classroom emphasizes -
active learning,
collaboration,
viewing a concept or problem from multiple
perspectives,
 reflection,
student-centeredness,
authentic assessment to promote meaningful
learning and
help students construct their own
understanding of the world.

34. CONCEPT OF INTUITIVE AND ANALYTICAL
THINKING-
Intuitive thinking means going with
one's first instinct and reaching
decisions quickly based on
automatic cognitive processes.
Intuitive thought is automatic,
unconscious, and fast, and it is
more experiential and emotional.
Analytical Thinking is being able
to identify and define problems,
extract key information from data
and develop workable solutions for
the problems identified in order to
test and verify the cause of the
problem and develop solutions to
resolve the problems identified.
Analytic thought is deliberate,
conscious, and rational (logical).

35. INDICATORS OF
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT-
1) Respond to situations in varied ways.
2) Internalize the events into a storage
system (that corresponds to the
environment).
3) Have increased capacity for language.
4) Interact systematically with the tutor.
5) Use language as an instrument for
ordering the environment.
6) Have increasing capacity to deal with
multiple demands.

36. THEORY OF INSTRUCTION-
Bruner (1996) states that a theory of instruction should address four major
aspects
1. Predisposition to learn- He introduced the ideas of “readiness for
learning”. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and context
that make the student willing and able to learn.
2. Structure of Learning-Instruction must be structured so that it can be
easily grasped by the students. The ways in which a body of knowledge can
be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the leaner.
3. Effective Sequencing- Instruction should be designed to facilitate
extrapolation and or fill in the gaps. No one sequencing will fit every learner,
but in general, the lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty.
4. Reinforcement- Rewards and punishment should be selected and paced
appropriately.

37. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS-
As per Bruner, learning is an active process in which learners construct new
ideas.
Instruction must be of Scaffolding type.
Curriculum must be spiral.
He found out that motivation for learning needs to be intrinsic. External
competitive goas like grades, marks and ranks are time being motivators.
As per Bruner, intuition is underrated.
Schema is important at it makes learning meaningful; and long lasting. Schema
are the mental structures build on the basis of previous knowledge.
Bruner recommended use of combination of concrete, pictorial and then
symbolic activities in sequence.

38. MEANINGFUL LEARNING
THEORY- David Ausubel

39. DAVID PAUL AUSUBEL
25/10/1918 to 09/07/2008
He was an American Psychologist born in New York.
His most significant contribution Educations Advance Organizers.
He supported the theory that pupils form and organize knowledge by
themselves.
Emphasized importance of language learning and verbal leaning.
Ensure meaningful learning.
Avoid rote learning.
In the meaningful learning process, correlation is established between
previous knowledge and current knowledge.

40. Cognitive
Structure or
Present
Knowledge
Facts
Raw Perceptual
Data
Theories
Propositions
Concepts
Meaningful learning takes
place when an idea to be
learned is related in some
sensible way to ideas that the
learner already possesses.
Ausubel believed that before
new materials can be presented
effectively, the student’s
cognitive structure should be
strengthened.

41. THE PROCESSES OF MEANINGFUL
LEARNING-
Ausubel proposed 4 processes by which meaningful learning occur-
◊Derivative Subsumption
◊Correlative Subsumption
◊Superordinate Learning
◊Combinatorial Learning

42. DERIVATIVE SUBSUMPTION-
Derivative Subsumption is when you
add new things to existing cognitive
structures, linking them to concepts
already known.
A learner absorbs new information by
tying it to existing concepts and ideas
that they have already acquired.
In Derivative Subsumption, the new
material derives from the existing
structure, and can be linked to other
concepts or lead to new
interpretations. For Example- if we take a concept of bird, student is aware
about basic features…and when we say parrot is a bird,
student learns about the basic idea, already clear in their
mind.

43. CORRELATIVE SUBSUMPTION-
Correlative subsumption refers
to the elaboration, extension, or
modification of the previously
learned concept or propositions
by the subsumptions of the
incoming idea
In Correlative Subsumption, the
new material is an extension of
the already grasped knowledge.
Accommodation of new
information by changing or
expanding the concept.
Students are aware about the concept of leaves. But When
they are shown thorns as modified leaves, their
understanding of existing concept broadens.

44. SUPERORDINATE LEARNING-
This type of learning takes place when a
learner learns an inclusive new concept
under which ideas in the cognitive
structure are absorbed.
That is learner knew a lot of examples of
the concept, but you did not know the
concept until it was taught to pupils.
new concept is learned under which
already established ideas are subsumed.
Often people learn lessons from their
experiences.
Imagine that I was well acquainted with
maples, oaks, apple trees, etc., but I did
not know, until I was taught, that these
were all examples of deciduous trees.
Principles of Growth and Development, you
already knew, but, ideas got organized, after
learning as a subject in B.Ed.

45. COMBINATORIAL LEARNING-
Combinatorial learning happens when a
new idea is not relatable in a specific
sense to an existing anchor but is
generally relevant to a broad
background of information.
Combinatorial learning is when ideas
are linked (combined) between higher-
level concepts such as when one knows
form physics, for example, that
stationary air-spaces insulate helps to
better understand the function of
hair or feathers in keeping certain
animals warm. For Example- Correlation of various subjects,
makes a better understanding of every related
subject.

46. THE PRINCIPLES OF THE MEANINGFUL
LEARNING -
1. Active: The learner must cognitively engage with the presented information
using an appropriate learning styles.
2. Constructive: When information is incorporated into a cognitive structure, it
is recreated as a new form showing the learners own understanding.
3. Cumulative: New information builds upon old information rather than being
replaced or stored independently.
4. Self-regulated: Meaningful learning is an independent process. The learner
must conduct and regulate their own learning process as well as make
decisions on how to organize the mental model.
5. Goal-Oriented: An outcome or expectation should be worked by the learner.
Moreover, the goal must be devised individually.

47. SUMMARY-
Old New
Meaningful
Learning
Within the cognitive theory of
learning, based on the theory of
human information processing, there
are 3 core processes of learning:
1. how knowledge is developed,
2. how new knowledge is integrated
into an existing cognitive system,
and
3. how knowledge becomes
automatic.

48. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS-
1. The teachers should take into account what was obtained by students previously
and try to relate it to the new knowledge.
2. Teachers should use phases, materials, contents, and ideas that connect with
prior knowledge while establishing new knowledge.
3. Students should be able to relate what’s being taught with their previous
knowledge.
4. Use interesting techniques and methods of teaching.
5. The learning material presented to the learners should be clear and organized
for them to understand.
6. Use real-life examples.
7. For meaningful learning, teachers should focus on developing motivation in the
students.

49. Jerome Bruner David Ausubel
Jerome Bruner Cognitive
Psychologist proposed following-
Scaffolding Theory
Spiral Curriculum
CAM
Stages of Cognitive Development
Constructivism
Concept of Intuitive and
Analytical Thinking
Ausubel proposed 4 processes by
which meaningful learning occur-
◊Derivative Subsumption
◊Correlative Subsumption
◊Superordinate Learning
◊Combinatorial Learning

51. Information - Processing View
(Atkinson Shiffrin)
MULTI STORE MODEL OF MEMORY

52. What is Memory?
Memory is the record of experiences.
It is the storehouse of mind, the
reservoir of the accumulated learning.
It is a complex physical and mental
process.
It can be defined as the storage of the
learned information for retrieval and
future use.

53. Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin
Richard Shiffrin (born
March 13, 1942) is an
American psychologist,
professor of cognitive
science in the Department
of Psychological and Brain
Sciences at Indiana
University, Bloomington.
Shiffrin has contributed a
number of theories of
attention and memory to the
field of psychology.
Richard Chatham
Atkinson (born
March 19, 1929) is
an American
professor of
psychology and
cognitive science
and an academic
administrator.

54. Theory at a glance-
In 1968 these two proposed a
multi-stage theory of memory.
They explained that from the
time information is received by
the processing system, it goes
through different stages to be
fully stored.
They broke this down to sensory
memory, short-term memory, and
long-term memory (Atkinson).

55. Information Processing-
The processing of information, typically by a computer or by
an organism, so as to yield new or more useful information.
The human mind’s activity of taking-in, storing and using the
information as and when required.
The whole system is guided by control processes.
Just like the computer, human mind takes in information, performs
operations on to it to change its form and content, stores the
information, retrieves it when needed and generates responses to it.

56. Defn. of Information Processing-
The model of learning that examines how we learn using the
Mind As A Computer metaphor.
The Information Processing Model represents what
happens when information flows through various internal
structures which are supposed to exist inside the learner.

57. Three Step Process of Memorizing-
1. Encoding- The processing of information into the memory system.
2. Storage- The retention of encoded material over time.
3. Retrieval- The process of getting the information out of memory
storage for some application.

58. Multi Store Model of Memory by Atkinson and
Shiffrin-

59. 3 Types of Memory-
Sensory Memory
Short-Term
Memory(STM) or
Working Memory
Long-Term
Memory(LTM)

60. Sensory Memory
Stimuli from the environment
(sight, sound, smell, etc.)
constantly bombard our body’s
mechanism for seeing, hearing,
tasting, smelling and feeling.
Sensory memory is the initial
processing that transforms these
incoming stimuli into information
so we can make sense of them.

61. Short-Term Memory(STM) or Working Memory
Short-Term Memory(STM) or Working Memory refers only to the temporary stage
of information in memory.
It just usually means storage, the immediate memory for new information that can
be held for 15-20 seconds.
To retain information in working memory following steps top be followed-
1. Chunking
2. Mnemonic Devices
3. Rehearsal

62. Forgetting-
Meaning-
Forgetting or disremembering is the apparent loss or modification
of information already encoded and stored in an individual's short or
long-term memory.
It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are
unable to be recalled from memory storage.

63. Factors responsible for Forgetting-
1. Encoding Failure- We don’t learn the information in the first place.
2. Decay- Memories fade over time.
3. Inadequate Retrieval Cues- We lack reminders/links.
4. Deliberate Forgetting- We deliberately keep things out of our mind.
5. Interference- Other memories get in the way.
Interference
Retroactive
Interference
Proactive
Interference
Retroactive Interference - New information blocks out
old information.
Proactive Interference - Old information blocks out new
information.

64. Long-Term Memory(LTM)
Long-term memory refers to the
memory process in the brain that takes
information from the short-term
memory store and creates long lasting
memories. These memories can be from
an hour ago or several decades ago.
Unlimited storehouse of information
Permanent store of information.

65. Long-term memory is not a single store and is divided into 2 types-
explicit (conscious) and implicit (casual or unconscious).
Long-term
memory
Explicit
Memory
Episodic Semantic
Implicit
Memory
Procedural Emotional

66. Explicit and Implicit memory are both types of long-term memory. The information we memorize consciously is known as
explicit memory while the information we store or remember unconsciously is called implicit memory.
Episodic Memory - Episodic memory is responsible for storing information about events (i.e. episodes) that we have
experienced in our lives. It involves conscious thought and is declarative. An example would be a memory of our 1st day at
school. The knowledge that we hold in episodic memory focuses on “knowing that” something is the case (i.e.
declarative). For example, we might have an episodic memory of knowing that we caught the bus to college today.
Semantic Memory - Semantic memory is responsible for storing information about the world. This includes knowledge
about the meaning of words, as well as general knowledge. For example, London is the capital of England. It involves
conscious thought and is declarative. The knowledge that we hold in semantic memory focuses on “knowing that”
something is the case (i.e. declarative). For example, we might have a semantic memory for knowing that Paris is the
capital of France.
Procedural Memory - Procedural memory is responsible for knowing how to do things, i.e., memory of motor skills. It
does not involve conscious (i.e., it’s unconscious-automatic) thought and is not declarative. For example, procedural
memory would involve knowledge of how to ride a bicycle.
Emotional Memory-Emotional memory is shorthand for denoting the memory of experiences that evoked an emotional
reaction.
Types of LTM-

67. Educational Implications of Multi Store Model of
Memory by Atkinson and Shiffrin-
1. Plan for higher Attention Span.
2. Use attention signals.
3. Keep student’s attention engaged.
4. Respect attention limit.
5. Follow Chunking, Mnemonic Devices and Rehearsal techniques.
6. Help students for effective storage and retrieval.
7. Implicit and Explicit Memory.
8. Take efforts to minimize student’s forgetting.

68. Criticism of Atkinson Shiffrin View of Learning-
The model is oversimplified, in particular when it suggests that both short-term
and long-term memory each operate in a single, uniform fashion. We now know is
this not the case. It has now become apparent that both short-term and long-term
memory are more complicated that previously thought.
It assumes that each of the stores works as an independent unit.
The model does not explain memory distortion.
The model does not explain why some things may be learned with a minimal amount
of rehearsal.

69. All the best!!!

70. Humanistic Approach to Learning - Carl
Rogers
Slide Presentation by-Prof.Samruddhi Chepe

71. Psychodynamic My unconscious profoundly shapes my world and life.
I am motivated by instincts and drives such as aggression and sexuality
while also those drives with societal expectations.
Behaviorist I learn by association.
Repetitive experiences shape my responses.
Humanist I have choice.
I'm motivated by Self Actualization Tendency to explore my full
potential.

72.  Born in 1902, Carl grew up on a farm in Illinois, developing an interest in biology agriculture.
 Expressing emotions was not allowed in the Rogers household it took its toll on Carl who
developed an ulcer at 15.
 Rogers went to the University of Wisconsin to study agriculture in 1919.
 He changed careers becoming interested in religious studies. He finished his degree and left for
Union Theological Seminary in NY to become a minister.
 Rogers view of humanistic psychology was at odds with Freudian theory behaviorism.
 He gained recognition when he won the APA award for distinguished scientific contribution in
1956.
 In 1963, he moved to LaJolla, California.Developed the Centre for Studies of the Person.
 He continued his scientific efforts, writing, holding workshops,etc. until he died in 1987.

73. 1. Phenomenal Field
2. Organism and the actualizing tendency
3. Ideal Self
4. Congruence and Incongruence
5. Personality Development
6. Fully Functioning Person

74.  the phenomenal self represents that
subset of self-knowledge—including
beliefs, values, attitudes, self-ascribed
traits, feelings of self-worth,
autobiographical memories,
interpersonal relationship knowledge,
and goals and plans—that is currently
in consciousness.
 For example, a person who is made
self-aware by being placed before a
mirror is more likely to behave in ways
that are consistent with his or her traits
than if he or she were not self-aware.

75.  What Is Actualizing Tendency?
The basic idea of the
actualizing tendency is
straightforward. It is a desire
present in all living things
that pushes the organism
toward growth. In the case of
humans, we all want to express
ourselves creatively and reach
our full potential.

76.  Self-concept How I see myself
 The ideal self is the person that you
would like to be; the real self is the
person you actually are.

77.  Although general use of the word
has come to mean inconsistent or
incompatible, Rogers had a more
specific definition in mind.
 He defined congruence as the
matching of experience and
awareness.
 Incongruence was therefore
lacking congruence, or having
feelings not aligned with your
actions.

78.  Personality
development encompasses the
dynamic construction and
deconstruction of integrative
characteristics that
distinguish an individual in
terms of interpersonal
behavioral traits. Personality
development is ever-changing
and subject to contextual factors
and life-altering experiences.

79.  A fully functioning person is one who is
continually working toward becoming
self-actualized.
 They are also capable of expressing
feelings and are fully open to life's many
experiences.
 Awareness of all experiences
 Live fully in the moment
 Trust own behavior and experience
 Sense of freedom in decision making
 Creative, flexible to change
 Recognition that difficulties will inevitably
arise.

80.  Research in psychotherapy.
 First to refer to the person as Client instead of patient.
 Growth model was given.
 Emphasis on developing self-concept in personality.
 Conditions necessary for therapy accepted and used in many other schools of
therapy.
 Developed the Person Centered Therapy.
 Concept of Congruence.
 Represents a shift from medical model to growth model.

81. Free Will
Self-
discovery
Achieving
Full
Potential
Humanisti
c
Approach

82.  In education roger stressed at the
rich environment, where learners
could follow their interests to reach
their full potentials.
 Curriculum must be learner
centered.
 Knowledge should be applicable.
 Emphasize learner development.
 Teaching should be intrinsic.
 Facilitation of learning should be the
primary purpose of education.

83.  Ignores aspects of personality that client may be unaware of, but that still influence
clients behaviour.
 Ambiguous concepts Self-actualizing tendency
 Rogers assumes that core of humans is positivity. But victims of violent crimes may
disagree.
 Rogers also believed humans are Trustworthy Organisms.
 Actualization is it always achieved??

85. SOCIAL-CONSTRUCTIVISTTHEORY OF LEARNING-
(VIEWS OF PIAGETAND LEVVYGOTSKY)
 Social constructivism focuses on the collaborative nature of learning. Knowledge develops from how people interact with each
other, their culture, and society at large.
 Students rely on others to help create their building blocks, and learning from others helps them construct their own knowledge
and reality.
 Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating a classroom environment that emphasizes
collaboration and exchange of ideas.
 Students must learn how to articulate their ideas clearly as well as to collaborate on tasks effectively by sharing in group
projects.
 Jean Piaget is known as one of the first theorists in constructivism. His theories indicate that humans create knowledge
through the interaction between their experiences and ideas.
 Social constructivism was developed by post-revolutionary Soviet psychologist LevVygotsky.

86. LEVVYGOTSKY-
 Vygotsky was born in Russia on November 17, 1896 and died on June 11, 1934
at the age of 37.
 His work began when he was studying learning and development to improve
his own teaching.
 He attended Moscow State University, where he graduated with a degree in
law in 1917.
 He is considered as the father of social constructivist theory. He followed the
work of Jean Piaget – who is attributed as the roots of constructivism.
 While Piaget focused on stages of child development and individual
construction of knowledge, Vygotsky identified the greater socio-cultural
context.
 He wrote on language, thought, psychology of art, learning and development
and educating students with special needs.

87. Social Interactions

88. SOCIAL INTERACTIONS-
 Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens
through participation in social activities.
 Parents , teachers and other adults in the learner’s
environment all contribute to the process.They
explain, model, assist, give directions and provide feed
back.
 Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and collaborate
and enrich the learning experience.
Basic Principles of Social Constructivism
 Children construct their knowledge.
 Development cannot be separated from its social
context.
 Learning can lead to development.
 Language plays a central role in mental development.

89.  This child is learning to walk with the help of a parent.
The parent holds both hands so the child doesn’t have
to focus on both balance and moving her feet. Soon, this
child will be able to walk and run by herself.
 What are you writing? Father’s knowledge of letters:
Structure, Purpose, Conventional spelling and grammar
I’m writing a letter Child’s knowledge of letters: Mom
and dad write and receive letters.
 Language can be viewed as a verbal expression of
culture.
 Every culture has the words it needs for its lifestyle.
 It opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge
that others already have.
 It is use to know and understand the world and solve
problems.
 It serves a social function but it also has an important
individual function.It helps the learner to regulate and
reflect on his own thinking.

90. MAJORTHEMES GIVEN BYVYGOTSKY-

91. SOCIAL INTERACTION-
 Vygotsky felt social learning anticipates development.
 He believes that young children are curious and
actively involved in their own learning and the
discovery and development of new understandings.

92. MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER-
 Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may
be the individuals with more knowledge or
experience. For example: Who would know more
about the latest teen music group, how to be the
newest black ops game, or what is the latest dance
moves, a child or their parent?

93. ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)
 This is an important concept that relates to the
difference between what a child can achieve
independently and what a child can achieve with
guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.
 According toVygotsky learning occurs here.
 Vygotsky sees the ZPD as the area where the most
sensitive instruction or guidance should be given,
allowing the child to develop skills they will then use
on their own, developing higher mental functions.

94. ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
 Vygotsky is most recognized for his concept of Zone of
Proximal Development or ZPD pertaining to the learning of
children.
 However, with an appropriate amount of assistance, these
children can accomplish the task successfully.
 The lower limit of a child’s zone of proximal development is the
level of analysis and problem-solving reached by a child without
any help.
 The upper limit, on the other hand, is the level of additional
responsibility that a child can receive with the support of a
skilled instructor.
 As children are verbally given instructions or shown how to
perform certain tasks, they organize the new information
received in their existing mental schemas in order to assist
them in the ultimate goal of performing the task independently.

95. COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM-
 Peer interaction, scaffolding and modeling are important way to
facilitate individual cognitive growth and knowledge acquisition.
 Peer Interaction-The shared social interactions when peers work on tasks
cooperatively serve an instructional function.
 Scaffolding - Psychologist and instructional designer Jerome Bruner first used the
term 'scaffolding' in this context back in the 1950s.The term scaffolding refers to
a process in which teachers model or demonstrate how to solve a problem, and
then step back, offering support as needed (supports may be recourses,
compelling a task, templates and guides etc.).
 Modelling or Reciprocal teaching- It involves interactive dialogues between
teacher and small group of students.At first, the teacher models the activities.
After that teacher and students take turns being the teacher. Eg.- reading
comprehension.
Peer
Interaction
Scaffolding
Modeling

96. EDUCATIONALAPPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISTS
THEORY-
 Child is an active participant in the learning process.
 Individual differences are considered.
 Teachers assist children in discovery.
 Each Child’s proximal zone of development to be considered.
 Promote fantasy play.
 Interactive Class-Child to Child and Child to Teacher.
 Give demonstrations, give freedom to certain extent, give responsibility, cooperative learning etc. to be done.

97. JEAN PIAGET-
 Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious
student, publishing his first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old.
 His early exposure to the intellectual development of children came
when he worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon as
they worked to standardize their famous IQ test.
 Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was
inspired by his observations of his own nephew and daughter.
 Children were earlier treated simply as smaller versions of adults. Piaget
was one of the first to identify that the way that children think is
different from the way adults think.

98. 3 MAIN CONCEPTS IN PIAGET’STHEORY-
Schema
Assimilation and
Accommodation
Stages of
Learning

99. SCHEMA-
 Mental Structures that an individual uses
to organize knowledge.
 A schema, or scheme, is an abstract concept
proposed by J. Piaget to refer to our, well,
abstract concepts. Schemas (or schemata)
are units of understanding that can be
hierarchically categorized as well as webbed
into complex relationships with one another.
 For example, think of a house.

100. ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMMODATION-
According to Piaget, the learning process involves the
following:-
 Assimilation: Attempting to interpret new
information within the framework of existing
knowledge.
 Accommodation: Making small changes to that
knowledge in order to cope with things that don't fit
those existing frameworks.

101. JEAN PIAGET'S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT-
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development works on understanding how children
acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages
are:
 Sensori-motor stage: birth to 2 years
 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
 Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
17

102. THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
AGES: BIRTHTO 2YEARS
18

103. THE SENSORI-MOTOR STAGE
AGES: BIRTHTO 2YEARS
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them
 Key Feature- Object Permanence
19

104. THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
AGES: 2TO 7YEARS
20

105. THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
AGES: 2TO 7YEARS
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete
terms.
 Key Feature- Egocentrism
21

106. THE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
AGES: 7TO 11YEARS
22

107. THE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
AGES: 7TO 11YEARS
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to
that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle.
 Key Feature- Conservation
23

108. THE FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
AGES: 12 AND UP
24

109. THE FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
AGES: 12 AND UP
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical
and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information
 Key Feature- Manipulate ideas in head, abstract reasoning.
25

111. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
1. Emphasis on discovery approach in learning.
2. Curriculum should provide specific educational experience based on children's developmental level.
3. Arrange classroom activities so that they assist and encourage self-learning.
4. Do not treat children as miniature adults; they think and learn differently from adults.
5. Practical learning situations.
6. Simple to Complex and Project method of teaching.
7. Co-curricular activities have equal importance as that of curricular experiences in the cognitive
development of children.
27

112. 28

113. PIAGET’STHEORY

114. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PIAGET ANDVYGOTSKY’SVIEWS-
Parameters- Piaget Vygotsky
Socioculturalcontext little emphasis Strong emphasis
Constructivism Cognitive constructivist Social constructivist
Stages Strong emphasis on stages of development No general stages of development
proposed
Key processes in
development& learning
Equilibration; schema;adaptation;
assimilation; accommodation
Zone of proximal development;scaffolding;
language/dialogue;tools of the culture
Role of language Minimal - Language provides labels for
children's experiences (egocentric speech)
Major- Language plays a powerful role in
shaping thought
T
eaching implications Support children to explore their world
and discover knowledge
Establish opportunities for children to learn
with the teacher and more skilled peers

115. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISTTHEORY-
 Child as an active participant in the learning process.
 Importance of individual difference.
 Assist children in discovery.
 Teachers should guide learning through explanation, demonstration and verbal prompts. Tailor lessons to each
Childs zone of proximal development.
 Early childhood – promote teacher/child and child/child interactions.
 Promote fantasy play.
 Within the learning environment focus on literacy activities.
 Use prompts, reminders, increase independence,give information, use cooperative learning and reciprocal teaching
strategies.
 Language is the most important tool for gaining this social knowledge. Children can learn a lot via language