This document discusses resource-based learning. It covers the changing nature of resources due to digitization and the emergence of learning objects. It discusses the components of resource-based learning including context, tools, and scaffolds. It examines the epistemological foundations and assumptions of resource-based learning models. Finally, it reviews some research on resource-based learning and discusses issues such as developing literacy and ensuring effective resource use.

1. RESOURCE-BASED
LEARNING
By Hannafin and Hill
University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
Re-explained by Idris and Agung
State University of Yogyakarta
2018

2. ◦ The nature of information has changed dramatically
during the past 25 years. The digital age has redefined
the nature of a resource and dramatically changed
how resources are used to support learning. Media of
often unknown origin and quality are now used across
a wide range of learning systems to diverse
epistemological beliefs and associated learning goals.
The number and types of resources have also grown
exponentially.
Introduction

3. ◦ Metamorphosis of Media (Traditional publishing and production houses  Digitization,
E.g. the web. It has become the leading technology for accessing and sharing
information.) Users must no longer wait for a book to arrive in a library or bookstore;
many titles are now available directly from authors, it can be downloaded via webs.
◦ Socially Constructed Resources (Blogs and Wikis have become a primary source of
information across a growing range of users.) e.g. Educators have used them to share
ideas across a variety of disciplines and grade levels.
◦ Sophistication of Information System (During the past two decades, the amount of
information available has increased exponentially. E.g. The indexable Web was
comprised of approximately 320 million pages.)
◦ Affordibility, Power, and Availability (Technologies and Internet, for RBL, these two
things, can now be provided to the home as well as to education settings affording
ready access to a wealth of basic and high-end media resources.)
◦ Changing Nature of Resources ( The emergence of learning objects has stimulated
alternative conceptions of resources.)
◦ Economic and Practical Influences (It is talking about the availability of resources that is
required across learning context and models to enable use for varied purposes.)
The Emergence of RBL

4. ◦ Context
 External Context (- supplied situations or problems- are provided by an instructor or external agent to orient learners
a particular learning goals.)
 Individual Context (learners establish learning contexts based on their needs.)
 Negotiated Context (combine aspects of external and individual contexts.)
◦ Tools
 Processing Tools (help to manage cognitive demands associated with different RBL Models.)
 Searching Tools (can be used in directed as well as learner-centered environments.)
 Manipulation Tools (are used to test or explore.)
 Communication Tools (support the ability to exchange information and ideas.)
◦ Scaffolds
 Procedural Scaffolds (emphasize how to use the features and functions of a given resource.)
 Conceptual Scaffolds (guide learners in what to consider by assisting with the identification of knowledge related to a
problem or by making connections between concepts more apparent.)
 Metacognitive Scaffolds (common in inquiry-based environments, prompt reflection, comparison, and revision based
on self-assessment of understanding.)
 Strategic Scaffolds (provide assistance in identifying ways to analyze, plan, and respond (e.g . identifying and
information, evaluating resources).)
Components

5. 3. Epistemology
 Epistemology, the philosophical study of the nature, origin,
and limits of human knowledge. The term is derived from
the Greek epistēmē (“knowledge”) and logos (“reason”)
(Britannica, 2018).
 Objectivist and constructivist have different views on RBL
(Jonassen, 1991).
 Objectivist epistemology: the purpose of the design and
practice is to support learning.
 Constructivists highlight the unique individual construction
of knowledge and the production of meaning. So, it
concerns with unique design based on the learners’
characteristic, not particular single instructional design.
 The designs of RBL are also different based on foundation
and assumption used.

6. 4. Foundation and Assumption
a. Psychological
 Specific instantiations vary based on epistemological
differences, but the importance of psychological
foundations has been long recognized (Bednar et al., 1995;
Brown and Campione, 1996; Gagné and Glaser, 1987).
 Psychological foundations influenced by objectivist
epistemology:
1) Behaviorism.
 Skinner explained that learning implicates behavioral
changes governed by a stimulus, a response, and a
reinforce association.
 The more a desired behavior is reinforced in the
presence of controlling stimuli, the greater the
likelihood of repeating the response and the stronger
the learning.
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7. 1) Behaviorism
 Characteristically, behaviorists paid little attention
to thinking or the organization of knowledge,
tending instead to characterize learning in terms of
complex stimulus–response–reinforcement
association (Burton et al., 2004).
2) Cognitive Psychology
 It emphasizes on how the individual’s processing
of information and how knowledge is stored and
retrieved (Winn, 2004).
 It posits that mental processes mediate what is
selected, remembered, recalled, and generalized
based on individual background, needs, and
interests.
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8. 2) Cognitive Psychology
 It is based on the assumption that information
processing deals with external stimuli and
how internal mental process works with it.
 The richer the initial and updated encoding,
the more likely knowledge will be activated
and retrieved under appropriate conditions,
retrieved (decoded), and applied or transferred
(Hannafin et al., 2007).

9.  Situated cognition researchers and theorists (derived from
constructivist) consider knowledge and context to be
inextricably intertwined(Brown et al., 1989).
 Psychological foundations influenced by constructivist
epistemology:
A. Inquiry-based Learning
B. Problem-based Learning

10. b. Pedagogical
 Psychological and pedagogical foundations are
interdependent.
 They reflect underlying beliefs about the nature of
learning, the methods and strategies employed, and
the ways in which domain information is organized and
made available
 Examples of direct instruction based on objectivist
epistemology and behavioral psychology
1) Typically emphasizes explicit identification of
objective outcomes
2) Hierarchical structures,
3) Objective-based activities.

11. c. Technological
 Technological capabilities dictate the extent to
which features can support learning.
 Pedagogical requirements dictate how and which
capabilities should be integrated.
 The essential consideration is not about the high
technological equipment, but how it supports or
hamper the teaching and learning process.
 Technological features might be available but not
appropriate to a certain pedagogical objectives in a
specific learning environment.

12. d. Cultural
 Cultural considerations usually reflect beliefs about:
1) Education,
2) The role of individuals in society,
3) Traditions in how different disciplines teach and
learn, and
4) The current practices in a community
 They influence design by defining the values of a given
setting.
 As an example, “back to basics” learning cultures tend
to embrace objectivist epistemology, emphasize on
behavioral or cognitive psychological foundations,
and apply direct
instruction pedagogy.

13. e. Pragmatic
 It gives practical consideration why specific approach
should be or should not be implemented in a certain
school.
 Each setting has unique situational constraints that affect
how a learning model is implemented.
 Collins (1996) described consequences involved in
making practical consideration, such as:
 Determining what should be taught,
 Assessing costs and benefits,
 Evaluating activity alternatives
 Hardware and software provided by an educational
institution affect their adaptation, adoptation even
trigger the creation of innovations.

14. 5. Resource-based Learning Research
a. Armatas et al. (2003) explored how individual
characteristics (e.g., learning goals, study strategies,
subject interest, computer attitudes) influenced learner
engagement with course resources in an online
environment involving 731 students in Australia.
 Results indicated a significant influence for
background factors, engagement with, and
perceived value of RBL resources.
 Off-campus students reported spending more time
studying than on-campus students.
 Older students preferred working with the computer
more than younger student.
 On-campus students, generally younger, preferred
print-based resources.
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15. 5. Resource-based Learning Research
b. Newnham et al. (1998) explored the use of Internet-
based resources in an undergraduate geography
course.
 Results indicated significant improvements in
student performance associated with externally
directed use of Internet-based resources.
 the standard of academic coursework was higher
when students were provided directed access to
Internet-based resource.
 Student perceptions related to the use of Internet
resources were also positive, both for completing
course assignments and for long-term employability
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16. 5. Resource-based Learning Research
c. Greene and Land’s (2000) examined how:
1) learners used resources during project-based
learning,
2) procedural scaffolds influenced project progress,
3) interactions (student–student, student–instructor)
shaped project quality.
 Results indicated that the ability to recognize and
integrate specific Web resources into projects was
influenced by:
a) Knowledge of the Web,
b) The topic under investigation,
c) A willingness to consider alternatives.
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17. 5. Resource-based Learning Research
 Within-group student–student interactions
and instructor–student interactions were
reportedly valued and useful only when the
interaction was perceived to be of value.
 Learners may need explicit guidance in
selecting resources until they become
sufficiently familiar with their topic or the
context.
 Online information lacks adequate indexing
to support educational purposes.
 They underscored the need to structure and
scaffold both search and use of Web
resources.

18. 6. Issues and Implications
 One area of particular interest to RBL is literacy.
 Literacy concerns related to:
a) the rapid but largely unmanaged growth of
resources,
b) the presence of misinformation,
c) and the use of resources as propaganda.
 The largely unregulated generation, distribution, access,
and use of digital resources pose both significant
opportunities and challenges for RBL.
 Developing literacy across media and multiple ways of
knowing have become increasingly important (Mackey,
2002).
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19. 6. Issues and Implications
 Huot et al. (2004), along with other scholars writing in
their edited book, advocated that “literacy is not one
thing and that time changes what we mean by literacy”.
 Little is known about how recontextualized resources
(as the raw materials of the information age) influence
interpretation, meaning, and understanding during
RBL.
 Resource-based learning modules are intended to
facilitate individual resource selection and meaning
making.
 In some cases, unique sets of resources, tools, and
scaffolds have been developed for specific learning
models.
(Continue)

20. 6. Issues and Implications
 Little evidence exists documenting their effectiveness in
different, often distal, learning contexts.
 Comparatively few researchers have examined
interactions among contexts, tools, and scaffolds in
learner-centered model.
 Although a great deal of related research has been
published, their relevance to learning models reflecting
fundamentally different epistemologies has not been
documented conclusively.
 Wellington (2001) identified a host of
issues related to resource use, including teacher
control, worries about plagiarism, and perceived
threats to
teacher authority.